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GE0R3E WASHINGTON. 



History of Our Country 



A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS 



BY 



OSCAR H. COOPER, LL.D. 

Superin^endertt of Sckoois, GaJvestan, Tcras, and Ex-Su/tgrinienJi-nt of 
PuNic iHstructioH for th^ State of Texas 



HARRY F. ESTILL 

Professor vt tki Sam Houston State Normal InstitttU 
HuHtsz'uU, Texas 



LEONARD LEMMON 

Su/>eri»tc-Hj^Ht of Sci^K^is, Sherman, Texas 



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TKXAS KUITION 






BOSTON, U.S.A. 

GL\X .S: COMPANY. PUBLISHERS 

(Tbc ^tbrnarnm Press 



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Copyright, 1S95, by 
GINN & COMPANY 



Copyright, iSoS, iqo:^, by 
OSCAR H. COOPER 
HARRY F. ESTILL 
LEONARD LEMMON 



ALL RIGHTS KESEKVED 



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PREFACE. 



This " History of Our Country " has been prepared in the 
behef that there is need of a text-book on the history of the 
United States which would present fairly and impartially all 
sections of the Union. The authors have endeavored to divest 
the narrative of all bias for or against the North or the South, 
the East or the West. The strife for sectional or partisan 
supremacy has often transcended the bounds of true patriotism, 
but it is believed that such strife has been inevitable, and that 
in the long run it has made our country stronger and richer 
in the nobler elements of national life. Love of country is 
greater than the love of party, and loyalty to the state is a 
permanent and indestructible element in loyalty to the nation. 
Our country is " an indestructible union of indestructible 
states." Our history should be so taught that the next gen- 
eration will cherish the patriotism which conserves the rights of 
the states, and honor the patriotism which guards the suprem- 
acy of the Federal Union. If this book shall prove to be 
helpful to the great army of earnest and faithful teachers in 
making the story of our country's life, growth, and progress 
more real and interesting to their pupils, the hope of the 
authors will be amply fulfilled. 

Oscar H. Cooper. 

Galveston, Texas, April 25, 1895. 



SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 



In each lesson, the story of the text should in some way be connected 
with the every-day life and experience of the pupil. The outline and most 
of the events of our country's history may be readily grasped by minds of 
moderate maturity and experience ; but in the life of an enlightened people 
like our own, there are necessarily subjects whose thorough comprehension 
requires considerable information and mental development. The wise 
teacher will note the intellectual strength of his class in relation to the 
deep places of the subject. Local surroundings, peculiarities of individual 
pupils will suggest plans to connect the known with the unknown, the 
present with the past, the near-at-hand with the far-away. An event or 
question beyond the mental horizon of an immature class should be 
touched upon lightly, or deferred for later study. 

Each historical event should be associated in the learner's mind with 
other events. Isolated facts are soon forgotten. In the beginning of each 
recitation, call up the past events with which the lesson of the day is 
directly connected. Certain pupils may be appointed to investigate and 
report to the class special lines of review ; as Relation of France to 
American History, Important American Inventions, Outline of Tariff 
Legislation, etc., etc. 

Whenever practicable, present the story objectively or pictorially. The 
learner never gets too mature to be profited by the occasional use of simple 
devices that appeal to the sense of sight. The charts on pages 50 and 108 
will suggest plans that may be worked out by teacher and class, and used 
to great advantage in reviews. It is needless to say that portraits, pictures, 
and historic relics have their value in this connection. 

Maps are as indispensable to the teaching of history as of geography. 
While it is believed that the rich supply of maps in the " History of Our 
Country" is ample for the preparation of the lesson, yet for the recitation 
wall-maps are necessary. The question of expense need not enter here. 
A large map drawn on the blackboard in colored crayon by one of the 
pupils will answer all the purposes of the manufactured map, and possess 
the added interest of being "home-made." 



VI SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 

A few minutes at the close of a recitation may frequently be profitably 
devoted to a " pre-view " of the succeeding lesson or subject. Recalling to 
the minds of the pupils some movement or event described in the lesson of 
the day, or in some preceding lesson, lead them by carefully prepared ques- 
tions to suggest events that will in their judgment naturally result from the 
occurrences or policies already presented in the text. Under the guidance 
of the teacher a brief blackboard outline may then be constructed, giving 
a "bird's-eye view" of the important events about to be studied — some- 
what as the outline on page 152 presents a "pre-view" of an entire period. 
Supplement this with suggestions for study, references to books, magazines, 
or papers. 

There should be a constant and earnest effort to awaken a spirit of his- 
torical investigation. Mere memory-training is the unpardonable sin of the 
history teacher. The " Thought Questions " in the text are an effort to 
lead the pupil to think for himself. It is hoped that they will suggest other 
means by which the imagination, the judgment, the reason, and the moral 
faculties of the pupils will be called into healthful exercise. Within the reach 
of every class there should be at least a few standard works of history and 
biography, by means of which the pupil's small store of knowledge may be 
increased, and the spirit of investigation encouraged. 

The Topical Analyses will be found helpful to those teachers who pre- 
fer questions on the text to the topical method of recitation. They may be 
used to advantage in blackboard work ; one pupil being required to write 
the topic headings of the lesson, another to add the topical analyses, others 
to expand into a written narrative. They will afford, moreover, a convenient 
basis for reviews. 

Pupils may be referred to the Index for the pronunciation of difficult 
names. ^ p ^ 



Note. — The following is suggested as an inexpensive but valuable reference library : 

From Riverside Literature Series, 15 cents each, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. — 
Longfellow's Evangeline; Courtship of Miles Standish; Song of Hiawatha (two parts); 
Holmes's Grandmother's Story and other Poems ; Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair (three 
parts) ; Hawthorne's Biographical Stories. 

From Old South Leaflets, 5 cents each, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. — Voyages to Vin- 
land, from the Saga of Eric the Red; Marco Polo's Account of Japan and Java; Americus 
Vesputius's Account of his First Voyage ; Charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

Irving's Columbus; Fiske's Irving's Washington ; Macy's Our Government; Parkman's 
The Jesuits in North America, and La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West; Drake's 
Making of New England, and Making of the Great West; Cooke's Virginia, and My Lady 
Pocahontas; Curry's The South in Relation to the Constitution and Union, and Civil 
History of the Confederate States ; Higginson's Larger History of the United States ; Coffin's 
Old Times in the Colonies; Lodge's Story of the Revolution; Fiske's Critical Period in 
American History ; Schouler's History of the United States ; American Statesmen Series. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTORY. Page 

America 400 Years Ago i 



PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION. 

Three Great Voyagers 
Explorations and Settlements . 



13 
29 



THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 

Founding and Development of the English Colonies 53 

Downfall of the French Power in America . . .110 

Life in the Colonies 124 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

War of the Revolution 



152 

The Confederation 211 

THE UNION OF THE STATES. — DEVELOPMENT, DIVISION. 

Period of Development 225 

Growth of Sectional Antagonism 282 

THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 355 

THE STATES REUNITED. 

The Reconstruction Period 416 

Recent Events 435 

APPENDIX. 

A. Outline of American Literature .... 

B. Biographical Sketches xx 

C. Constitution of the United States .... xxxv 
Index Ivi: 

T 



Vlll 



CONTENTS. 



LIST OF FULL AND DOUBLE-PAGE MAPS 



Indian Tribes of United States (colored) . 

Route of Norse Voyagers 

Six Important Voyages 

Revolution in the New England States 
British Campaign against Philadelphia 
United States at Close of Revolution (colored) . 
The Northwest Territory (colored) 
The Territory of Louisiana (colored) 
The United States in i86i (colored) . 
Territorial Growth of United States (colored) . 
The United States at the Present Time (colored) 



Page 

3 

M 

24 

165 

185 

211 

213 

244 

360 

424 

448 



FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. 

George Washington Frontispiece 

Washington Crossing the Delaware 179 

Benjamin Franklin 218 

Flags of the United States . . . . . . -225 

Thomas Jefferson 241 

Henry Clay 268 

John C. Calhoun 285 

Daniel Webster 286 

Sam Houston 303 

Jefferson Davis 346 

Abraham Lincoln 355 

Flags of Confederate States of America .... 359 

U. S. Grant 368 

Robert E. Lee yj-] 

Stonewall Jackson 383 

Liberty Enlightening the World 446 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. 

I. The North American Continent. — Four hundred years 
ago the eastern part of the North American continent, from 




Ancient Cliff-Dwellinp-s. 



Hudson's Bay to the Gulf of Mexico, was a vast forest, broken 
here and there by small clearings which the savage natives had 



2 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

made by "girdling" the trees. Beyond the Mississippi were 
uncultivated prairies, upon which herds of deer and buffalo 
roamed unmolested. Still farther westward the peaks of the 
Rocky Mountains looked down upon a solitude undisturbed 
by human beings, save that here and there strange villages of 
"cliff-dwellers" hung upon the canon sides. On the Pacific 
slope lay fertile valleys untouched by the hand of man. 

Yet the physical features of this continent fitted it for rapid 
settlement, and destined it to be the home of a great people. 
The Atlantic coast, indented with numerous harbors, formed 
the doorway to the civilization of the Old World. Many wide 
and deep rivers, such as the St. Lawrence, Hudson, Potomac, 
and James, opened the way from the coast to the interior. 
Diversified climate, fertile soil, and the boundless natural 
resources of the country, made a noble land, "fitted to call 
forth and reward the energies of man." 



2. The First Americans. — The European explorers of 
America found the continent already inhabited by a large 

number of human beings. In 
some parts of the country these 
natives had made progress towards 
civilization. In Central America 
there are ruins of what were once 
_^^^ ^ _ _ beautiful cities. The Peruvians of 

!1^" ■«»' *^^ P * riwmm South America and the Aztecs of 
>»k %^im i //. -UHH Mexico invented a system of writ- 
ing, cultivated the soil, built good 
roads, and showed much skill in 
architecture. They were expert 
potters and workers in metals. 
The Pueblo tribes in New Mexico 
and Arizona built houses of sun-dried brick on high plateaus 
and in the cliffs of canons. They also made cloth and pottery. 




Pueblo Dwellings, N. M. 



AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. 



The inhabitants of the greater part of the continent, how- 
ever, were savages. These bore the general name of Indians, 
a name given them by the early explorers, who believed the 
new continent to be a part of India. The Indians were 
divided into wandering tribes, whose territories were marked 
by no fixed boundaries. 

3. Classification of Indian Tribes. — The Indians east of 
the Mississippi were divided into three great families of 
tribes, — the Iroquois, tlie Algon- 
quins, and the Mobilians. The 
Iroquois, or Five Nations, were 
located in the territory of the pres- 
ent State of New York. Various 
tribes of the Algonquins occupied 
New England and the country as 
far south as North Carolina. The 
Mobilians, including the Creeks, 
Cherokees, and other smaller 
tribes, were found in the south. 

West of the Mississippi the 
Dakotas, Sioux, Comanches, and 
Apaches were the most formidable. 

The various tribes differed 
among themselves in language, 
manners, and customs, but they 
had many characteristics in com- 
mon. 

4. Personal Appearance. — The 
North American Indian was called 
the "red man," because of his 
reddish brown, or copper color. He had high cheek bones, 
small black eyes, coarse black hair, and little or no beard. 
His figure was straight, slender, and of moderate height. His 




An Indian Warrior. 



4 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

clothing was scanty, — a deerskin over his shoulders, a strip of 
the same material around his waist, and in winter a pair 
of leggings to shield him from the cold. His feet were 
protected by " moccasins " made of soft buckskin and trimmed 
with beads or shells. He often tattooed himself. With 
colored clay he painted fantastic figures on his body. He 
adorned his head with feathers, while from his belt or 
around his neck hung eagles' claws and other trophies of 
the chase. 



5. Home Life. — The tribes were constantly migrating from 
one part of the country to another, and rarely had any perma- 
nent place of abode. Impelled by the desire for society, and 

for protection against their 
enemies, the members of the 
same tribe lived together in 
groups of huts, or villages. 
These huts were called " wig- 
wams." They were tempo- 
rary structures, made usually 
by tying together the tops of 
saplings or poles arranged in 
a circle and then covering this 
framework with bark or with 
skins of animals. An open- 
ing was left in the top of the wigwam for the smoke to escape. 
They had no furniture, save mats for beds, and a few rude 
cooking vessels of stone or baked clay. All the hard work 
was done by the women of the tribe ; they cleared the small 
patches, cultivated the soil, and raised the scanty crops of 
corn, beans, melons, and tobacco which the tribe consumed. 
The men spent most of their time hunting, fishing, or on the 
"war path." When not so engaged they were smoking and 
talking around the campfire, sleeping away the long, idle days. 




Wigwar 



AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. 



5 



gambling,^ or playing such games as football, quoits, etc. The 
children wandered about in savage freedom, uncared for, and 
untaught, save in wrestling, fishing, and forest arts. The 
Indian had no domestic animals, except a sort of wolfish dog 
that accompanied its master on the chase. 



6. Social Distinctions; the << Totem.'* — There were no 
grades of society among the Indians. One warrior was as 
good as another, and around the council-fires 
all had the right to be heard. Deference was 
shown to old men, wise men, orators, and 
heads of clans. 

A peculiar social institution called the "totem" 
existed among most of the tribes. Tribes were 
divided into clans. Each clan had its peculiar 
emblem, called the "totem," consisting of some 
bird, beast, or reptile, whose figure was often 
tattooed on the bodies of the members of the 
clan. Each clan was named from its "totem," 
as the clan of the Wolf, or Bear, or Hawk. 
Members of the same clan were kinsmen, and 
so were forbidden to intermarry. Membership 
in the clan descended through the mother; that 
is, the children belonged to the clan and bore 
the "totem" of their mother. Indians having Indian Gravestone 

, . showing the Totem 

the same "totem, although widely separated of the Turtle. 

1 " Most Indians were desperate gamblers, staking their all, — ornaments, cloth- 
ing, canoe, pipes, weapons, wives, A favorite game among the Hurons and Iroquois 
was played with plum stones or wooden chips, black on one side and white on 
the other. They were tossed up in a wooden bowl by striking it sharply on the 
ground, and the players betted on the black and white. Sometimes a village chal- 
lenged a neighboring village. The parties stood facing each other, while two 
champion players struck the bowl on the ground between them. The bets ran high. 
A French missionary relates that once in midwinter, with the snow nearly three feet 
deep, the men of a village returned from a gambling visit bereft of their leggings and 
barefoot, yet in excellent humor." — Parkman. 




6 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

and speaking different dialects, were bound to relieve each 
other's distresses whenever occasion demanded. 

7. Government. — The Indian knew little of the restraints 
of law and government. Each tribe had its sachem, or peace 
chief. The power of the sachem was advisory. There was no 
fixed provision for the punishment of crime. When a dispute 
arose the Indian relied on his own strength to maintain his 
rights. If he failed in this he applied for protection to his 
chief, who sometimes inflicted punishment with his own hands. 
When a murder was committed the relatives of the slain 
man were expected to avenge his death, or at least to secure 
from the murderers payment of a sum fixed by custom as the 
price of a life. 

In time of war the fighting men submitted to the leadership 
of some warrior whose courage and reputation gave him prece- 
dence. This war chief was sometimes also the sachem, but 
often a different person. 

8. Religion. — With no Bible, no priests, no temples, and 
but vague notions of God, there could be little definiteness or 
system about the Indian's religious belief. To him every 
plant, every animal, every stream and lake had its " Manitou," 
or incarnate spirit, endowed with mysterious power. The 
bones of the beaver were treated with tenderness and carefully 
kept from the dogs, lest the spirit of the dead beaver should 
take offense. In every tribe there was a "medicine man," 
who, by arts of magic, professed to cure sickness, drive away 
evil spirits, and regulate the weather. Their dances had a 
certain religious significance. The first missionaries found 
no word in any Indian language to express our idea of God. 
The Indian's notion of the one Great Spirit is thought to have 
been obtained frorii the white settlers. He believed in a 
future life, but in the Indian hereafter moral good was not re- 
warded, nor was moral evil punished. Courage and skill, 



AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. / 

even in a thief or murderer, secured admission to the " Happy 
Hunting Grounds"; while the cowardly, the stupid, and the 
weak were doomed to eat serpents and ashes, in gloomy 
regions of shade. 

9. Indian Wars. — The roving and jealous nature of the 
Indians, and consequent disputes over the possession of 
favorite hunting grounds, led to constant warfare among the 
tribes. So universal and so bitter were these tribal 
antagonisms, that combinations of tribes, even for 
defense against a common enemy, were extremely 
rare. Occasionally a chief of powerful personal 
influence was enabled to form a widespread "con- 
spiracy " against the white settlers, and thereby 
sweep whole settlements to destruction. But with 
the death or defeat of the leader, the league soon 
fell to pieces. The tomahawk (a rude stone 
hatchet), the scalping knife, and the bow and 
arrow were the Indian weapons of warfare until 
guns were procured from the whites. Night at- 
tacks, surprises, and ambuscades were their favorite Tomahawk. 
tactics. The Indians never fought a pitched battle in open field. 




li 



lOe Treatment of Captives. — Prisoners taken in war were 
treated with horrible cruelty. The unfortunate captive was 
often compelled to " run the gauntlet " between two long lines 
of his enemies, each of whom struck him with a club or knife 
as he went by. His tortures were frequently ended by death 
at the stake. The scalp of the victim was always taken by his 
slayers, and the reputation and influence of a warrior were 
determined by the number of these bloody trophies suspended 
from his belt. 

After the coming of the whites the Indians frequently spared 
the lives of captives in order to demand a ransom from their 
friends. Sometimes a prisoner who happened to be fancied by 



8 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



one of his captors was " adopted," with elaborate ceremonies. 
The captive's life was then spared, and he became a member of 
the tribe of his conquerors. Instances are recorded of white 
captives, who, after years spent among the savages as adopted 
members of the tribe, became so attached to their associates 
that they refused all entreaties of their white relatives to 
return to civilized life. 

II. Relations with White Settlers. — The first European 
explorers of North America were received with honor by the 
natives, and treated as superior beings. More than once a white 
settlement was saved from starvation by the kindness of the 




Wampum, or Indian Money, made of Strings of Shells or Beads. 



Indians in freely sharing their supply of food. As a rule, the 
first settlers were careful to purchase land from the savages 
upon terms satisfactory to the latter. The Indians readily 
sold their lands at what appear to us ridiculously low prices. 
A blanket, a kettle, a knife, a hatchet, a few trinkets were 
sufficient to purchase hundreds of fertile acres. But we must 
remember that one of these simple household articles might 
transform the whole life of a savage. To him, a kettle was a 
complete set of kitchen furniture ; a blanket was an entire 
wardrobe: Moreover, in his sale of lands the Indian seemed 
to have an imperfect idea of absolute surrender of the soil. 
He supposed he was granting merely the right of joint 
occupancy. The fixed boundaries and palisaded enclosures of 
the lands sold to the whites in time aroused the indignation of 



AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. 9 

the red man, as he realized that his home was gone from him 
forever. It cannot be denied that in many of their land deal- 
ings with the Indians, the unscrupulous action of the white 
settlers was a disgrace to Christianity and civilization. The 
Europeans quarreled with each other over rival titles to 
the soil, totally ignoring the claims of the Indians. It has 
been said that the only landed right recognized as belonging 
to the savages was that of giving up territory. 

In most of the English colonies efforts were made to 
Christianize the savages. Whether from hatred of the white 
man or from the animal nature of the Indian, these efforts 
met with poor success. 

In the conflict between European nations on American soil, 
the Indian tribes were frequently secured as allies by one side 
or the other. Yet their aid, while valuable, was always un- 
reliable.^ 

12. Character. — In their own wigwams and at their festi- 
vals, the Indians were^ often talkative and sociable. But on 
most public occasions and in the presence of strangers, they 
were haughty and reserved. They prided themselves on their 
self-control. Surprise, anger, grief, joy, bodily pain, were ex- 
perienced without the slightest outward sign. A wild love 
of liberty and utter intolerance of control lay at the basis 
of their character. Courage, hospitality, and loyalty to friends 
were their redeeming traits. At the same time, they were 
cunning, sly, and suspicious. Their worst trait was the spirit 

1 The governor of Virginia, in a letter to an English general during the French 
and Indian War, wrote : " I think we have secured the Six Nations to our interest. 
They are a very awkward, dirty sett of People, yet absolutely necessary to attack 
the enemy's Indians. They are naturally inclined to drink. It will be a prudent 
step to restrain them with moderation." 

The French commander, Dieskau, about the same time thus expressed himself 
about his savage allies : " They drive us crazy from morning till night. One needs 
the patience of an angel to get on with these devils, and yet one must always force 
himself to seem pleased with them." 



lO HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

of revenge and cruelty, which made them delight in slaughter 
and in torturing their enemies. That the Indian made so 
little progress in civilization, is due partly to the extreme pride 
of his nature, which acknowledged no superior, and partly to 
his superstitious imagination, which made him accept fanciful 
explanations of the phenomena of nature instead of cultivating 
his power of reason in their investigation. " If the wind blew 
violently, it was because the water lizard, which makes the 
wind, had crawled out of his pool ; if the lightning was 
frequent, it was because the young of the thunder bird were 
restless in their nest." No race ever offered greater obstacles 
to its own improvement. 

13. The Modern Indians. — For two hundred years after 
the first permanent settlement in our country, Indian wars 
were a source of terror to the settlers, and influenced to 
a great extent the history of our people. Gradually, however, 
the Indians have been driven west of the Mississippi, and 
have passed under the complete control of the United States 
government. The total number in the United States to-day is 
about three hundred thousand. They are found chiefly in the 
Indian Territory and certain reservations in the western 
states. Several million dollars are spent every year by the 
United States government for their support. The best way to 
care for and control the Indians is a problem still unsolved. 
A few tribes have become civilized and Christianized, but the 
majority still retain their roving disposition and thriftless 
habits. The presence of troops is constantly required to quell 
disturbances that arise among them. 

14. The Mounds of the Mississippi Valley. — At various 
places in the Mississippi Valley are found immense mounds of 
earth of peculiar shape, which were evidently constructed 
many centuries ago. Some of these mounds seem to have 
been intended for works of defense, others for burial places or 



AMERICA 400 YEARS AGO. 



H 



for religious purposes. The great amount of labor required to 
build such immense earthworks, together with the stone imple- 
ments, utensils of pottery, and ornaments of copper they have 
been found to contain, seem to indicate that they were con- 




Section of Mound, Kanawha, W. Va. 

structed by a different race of people from the Indians. It is 
supposed that the Mound Builders occupied the country be- 
fore the Indians, and possessed some degree of civilization; 
but the problem of the origin of these mounds has not yet 
been solved. 

15. Summary. — Let the student write in the form of a composition on 
"The North American Indians," a summary of what he considers the most 
important points mentioned in this chapter. He should first read carefully 
the entire chapter, then consult other sources of information. The com- 
position may embrace such topics as the origin, classification, appearance, 
manner of life, character, influence, and destiny of the Indian. 

To the Teacher. — Encourage the pupil to bring into his work " outside 
information," and to express his own views. A profitable lesson-period 
may be spent in the reading and discussion of these compositions, sup- 
plemented by the reading of selections from Longfellow's " Hiawatha," 
Cooper's " Last of the Mohicans," and Leland's "Algonquin Legends of 
New England." 

16. Thought Questions. — Mention the names of some famous Indians, 
and tell what you can about them. What tribes once inhabited the state 
in which you live ? Why did the white settlers prefer African slaves to 
Indian slaves ? Mention some Indian names found in the geography of 
our country; some common words borrowed from the Indian language; 
some products of the soil which the Indians taught the white settlers to use. 
If this continent had never been discovered by white men, would the con- 
dition of its native inhabitants to-day be better or worse than it actuall) 
is ? Give reasons. 



12 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Physical Features. 



First Americans. < 



Topical Analysis (America Four Hundred Years Ago). 

Eastern part : forest, small clearings. 
Beyond the Mississippi, wild prairies. 
Pacific slope, mountains, fertile valleys. 
Harbors, rivers, climate, soil fitted it for dense 
population. 
f The Peruvians of S. A. 
The Aztecs of Mexico. 
Pueblo tribes in Southwest. 

Savages called Indians inhabited most of conti- 
nent. 

Iroquois -- New York. 
East ! Algonquins — New Eng. to S. C. 



Exhibited rude civili- 
zation. 



Classification of 
Indian Tribes. 



of Miss. 



4 



Mobilians 



( Creeks, 



West 
of Miss. R. 



(Cherokees, etc. 
Dakotas. 
Sioux. 
Comanches. 
Apaches. 



South. 



Personal Appearance. 

Wigwams 

Home Life. -: 



Totem : 
Government 



Occupation of women. 
Occupation of men. 
Condition of children. 
Its significance. 
Sachem. 
War Chief. 
f Manitou. 



'• Religion. -^ Medicine Man. 

[ Happy Hunting Grounds. 
I. Indian Wars. — Tribal Antagonisms; Weapons. 

C Running the gauntlet, 
o. Treatment of Captives. <! Scalping. 

[ Adoption of captives. 
I • Relations with f Friendly at first. 

Whites. \ Became hostile through encroachments of whites. 

2. Character of Indians. — Their good traits; their bad traits. 

r West of Miss. R., Ind. Ter., and other reservations. 
3- Modern Indians.^ Number: about 300,000. 

[ Supported chiefly by U. S. Government. 
[4- Mound Builders. 



PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION. 



THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 



1. Leif Ericson. 

17. The Northmen. — Northmen, or Norsemen, is a name 
applied to the inhabitants of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. 
In the earUest times these people were noted as bold sailors 
and fierce warriors. Two branches of this great family — the 
Danes and the Normans — between the eighth and the eleventh 
centuries overran England, and conquered that part of France 
called Normandy. These Northmen and their kinsfolk, the 
Saxons, were the founders of the English nation. Most Ameri- 
cans, as descendants of the English, have some of the old 
Norse blood in their veins. 

. 18. The Voyage of Leif Ericson. — The island of Iceland 
was settled by the Northmen at an early day. From Iceland 




Norse i,i 



.tl, Centur 



these Norsemen made their way to Greenland, and established 
a few settlements in that frozen country. In about the year 



14 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 




looo, Leif Ericson, a native of Iceland, sailed from Greenland 
with thirty-five men in search of a land which a fellow-country- 



THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 



15 



man, Bjarni, claimed to have seen from his ship some years 
before. Sailing to the southwest, Ericson came in sight of the 
bleak shores of Labrador. He coasted toward the south, prob- 
ably as far as Massachusetts. Finding the climate mild and 
the country inviting, he landed and spent the winter. From 
the quantity of grapes which he found, he named the country 
Vinland. 

19. Result of Leif Ericson^s Visit. — Leif Ericson's discov- 
ery attracted but little attention among his people. Several 
voyages were made to the region he had visited, but no perma- 
nent settlement was effected. The Northmen probably regarded 
Greenland as a part of Norway, and Vinland as an adjacent 
island. After a while the settlements in Greenland perished 
and were forgotten. Except to a few Northmen, Ericson's great 
voyage was not known and had no effect upon the civilized 
world. Measured by its results, Leif Ericson's visit to America 
had no historic importance. 

20. The Norse Sagas. — Authority for the account of Leif 
Ericson's voyage is found chiefly in the '' Norse Sagas." The 




Norse Ru 



Sagas are rude stories, half poems, in which the family histories 
of that early time were preserved. They were at first memo- 
rized and thus handed down from father to son ; in later years 



i6 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



they were committed to writing. Like the ballad literature of 
early England, they often contained, with much exaggeration, 
a solid basis of truth. The unquestioned fact that flourishing 
settlements of Northmen existed in Greenland, the nearness of 
Greenland to the continent of America, and the well-known 
adventurous spirit of the Norse sailors, all serve to confirm the 
record of the Sagas. 

II. Christopher Columbus. 

21. The Times in Which He Lived. — The early part of the 
fifteenth century belongs to the period known as the " Dark 




SOUTHERN ROUTE 

MIDDLE ROUTE ++ + + -h 

NORTHERN ROUTE 



Routes of Trade between India and Cities of Southern Europe. 



Ages" of the world. Everywhere the common people were 
oppressed by the nobles, and governments exercised little re- 
straint upon the rich and powerful. In southern Europe some 
enlightenment was found, but in most lands dense ignorance 
prevailed. There were few schools and no printed books. 



THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 1/ 

The maps of that time show that the shape and extent of the 
great continents of Africa and Asia were unknown, as was the 
extent of the seas. It was commonly believed that the earth 
was flat. A few learned men had advanced the theory that its 
shape was that of a sphere, but the suggestion was generally 
looked upon as absurd. The Mediterranean Sea was the great 




Columbus. 



highway of commerce, and few ships ventured to sail beyond 
its waters. About the middle of the century printing was in- 
vented, and the compass came into general use. As books 
became plentiful and cheap, the world began to awaken from 
its long sleep of ignorance. Marco Polo, an Italian, published 
an account of his travels in India and China. His book was 
widely read, and directed the attention of merchants and trad- 
ers to those distant lands. A profitable commerce had already 



i8 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



sprung up between India and the cities of southern Europe, 
but goods had to be carried part of the journey overland, and 
this was expensive, troublesome, and even dangerous. The 
great question of the time was, " Is there a water-route to 
India .? " 

22. His Home. — Four hundred years ago Genoa was one of 
the richest cities on the Mediterranean coast. Situated on the 
northwest shore of Italy, hemmed in to the sea by mountains, 
her people devoted themselves to commerce, and sailed their 
ships to distant lands. In this city Christopher Columbus was 
born. To a young man of Genoa the sea was the only road to 
fame and fortune, and so Columbus at fourteen years of age 
became a sailor. He not only visited the principal places on 
the Mediterranean, but sailed out into the Atlantic, and coasted 
along the western shores of Europe. 

23. His Plan and How He Came to Form It Columbus 

was attracted to Portugal by the fame of her sailors and geog- 




This Map shows how Columbus (not knowing that Annerica lay in the way) hoped to 
reach Asia and the East Indies by sailing West. 

raphers. In the intervals between his voyages, he earned a 
living in that country by making maps and charts. His trav- 
els and studies convinced him that the earth was round, and 



THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 



19 



that the great problem of a water-route to India could be solved 
by sailing west. He determined to risk his life on the unknown 
ocean, and prove by actual experiment what learned men before 
him had advanced as mere theory. There were two errors in 
his calculations that made the proposed voyage seem shorter 
and less dangerous than it actually was. He underestimated 
by several thousand miles the distance around the earth ; and 
he overestimated the size of Asia, making it extend too far to 
the east. Thus he thought that a voyage of about three thou- 
sand miles would bring him to India. We know now that this 
was about the distance to the then undiscovered continent of 
America, while India was more than three times as far as 
Columbus supposed. 

24. His Disappointments. — But Columbus was too poor to 
hire a ship and to employ sailors for so long a voyage. He 
applied for aid first to the 
government of his native city, 
Genoa. Failing there, he 
next made application to the 
king of Portugal, a monarch 
whose sailors were then ex- 
ploring the western coast of 
Africa, to see how far that 
continent extended, and to 
find out if India could be 
reached in that way. King 
John submitted the plan of 
Columbus to a council of 
learned men. They declared 
it absurd. Not disheartened, 
Columbus decided to appeal 
to King Ferdinand and Queen 
Isabella, sovereigns of the newly-united kingdoms of Arragon 
and Castile in Spain. These monarchs were in the midst of a 




Queen Isabella. 



20 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



war with the Moors on their southern border, and had no time 
for the enterprise. They Hstened to Columbus with poUteness, 
but put off giving him a final answer. For five years he waited 
and hoped. At last, concluding that nothing could be accom- 
plished in Spain, he started to leave the country. 

25. Queen Isabella's Aid. — Before Columbus reached the 
Spanish frontier, Queen Isabella had been induced to give him 
another hearing. He hastened back, and with all his eloquence 
presented to the queen the arguments in support of his theory, 
picturing the glory and wealth which the success of the under- 
taking would bring to Spain. The noble and sympathetic heart 
of Isabella was touched by his appeal. It is said she even 
offered to pledge her jewels in order to raise the money to 
buy and equip vessels for the voyage. 

26. The Voyage. — Three small sailing-vessels were pro- 
cured, the largest, called the Santa Maria, probably not more than 

63 feet long and 20 feet broad. 
On Friday, August 3d. 1492, the 
little tieet set sail from the har- 
bor of Palos, Spain, amid the 
tears and prayers of friends on 
shore, who never expected to see 
their loved ones again. Colum- 
bus first sailed southwest and 
stopped at one of the Canary- 
Islands.^ Then he struck boldly 
out towards the west on the un- 
known ocean. Weeks passed, 
and no land was seen. The trade- 
winds bore them steadily onward. 

Carave, or F.teentn Century. The SailorS iu alaOU began tO 

1 On the maps of Columbus. Cipango (Japan), a supposed outljing island of 
India, was due west of the Canary Islands. 



Occamca 




THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 21 

ask, " How can we ever return in the face of this changeless 
wind ? " And then the compass began to vary, the needle no 
longer pointing toward the North Star. The frightened men 
threatened to turn back. But the courage of Columbus never 
faltered. By artifices, bribes, and threats he prevailed upon 
the sailors to continue on their course. 

27. Discovery of America. — At last a carved stick and 
limbs of trees were seen lloating on the water. The king and 
queen had promised a large sum of money to the sailor who 
should first discover land. Columbus added the offer of a vel- 





x^* 






IJ = 


Bhrcelona! 
SPAIN { 

--~''- Seville 






^ . .0^ 


c. 






•=r 








_--— '^'■' 






" — 












4 : 


r" 










«7 

—^ 



Map ot Columbus's Route on his great Voyage across the Ocean. 

vet coat. At two o'clock one morning, as Columbus was anx- 
iously looking out from his ship, he saw far away in the dis- 
tance a light moving to and fro, like a torch carried by some 
one on shore. To the great joy of all, when daylight came, 
land was seen — Friday, October 12th, 1492. 

28. The New Land. — The land proved to be one of the 
Bahama Islands, possibly that now known as Guanahani, or Cat 
Island. Columbus named it San Salvador (Holy Saviour). 
He landed and took possession of the country in the name of 
the king and queen of Spain. Believing that he had reached 
islands near the coast of India, he called the natives who came 
crowding around him Indians. Several months were spent in 
coasting among the West India Islands. At last he set out on 



22 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

his return, carrying with him specimens of the strange plants 
and savage men of the lands he had visited. 

29. His Return. — Columbus's return voyage was a stormy 
one. He lost one of his vessels and became separated from 
the other. Fearing that his ship might be wrecked and the 
news of his discovery forever lost, he wrote a full account of 
his voyage and sealed it in a water-tight cask, hoping that if 
his vessel sank this cask might float to land and tell the story 
of his great achievement. Finally, after an absence of nearly 
eight months, his two storm-beaten vessels reached once more 
the little harbor of Palos. The report that Columbus had re- 
turned alive and successful quickly spread and caused great 
enthusiasm. The king and queen received him with distin- 
guished honor, and everywhere windows and balconies were 
thronged with people eager to catch a glimpse of the great dis- 
coverer. 

30. Other Voyages. — Columbus made three other voyages. 
He established a settlement on the Island of Hayti, and ex- 
plored most of the West India group. In 1498 he discovered 
the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco 
River. He never realized, however, that he had found a new 
continent, and died believing that he had reached India and its 
outlying islands. 

31. Last Days of Columbus. — According to agreement with 
Ferdinand and Isabella, Columbus was made governor of the 
lands he discovered. His Spanish colonists, however, were 
many of them wicked, lawless men. They hated Columbus be- 
cause he was an Italian, and they defied his authority. Finally 
they succeeded in having him removed from his oflice, and he 
was sent back to Spain in chains. Although he was soon set 
at liberty, yet his powerful friends deserted him. The good 
Queen Isabella died, and he was allowed to pass his last days 



THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 23 

a poor man, unknown and forgotten. He was buried at Valla- 
. dolid, Spain ; afterward his bones were removed to Havana, 
Cuba ; at the close of the Spanish-American War they were 
taken back to Spain and interred in the cathedral at Seville. 

32. Results of Columbus^s Discovery. — It was years after 
the death of Columbus before people ceased to believe that the 
new lands were a part of India. Yet to Christopher Columbus 
justly belongs the glory of discovering the " New World." By 
his genius, courage, and perseverance he conquered the terrors 
of the unknown sea and gave to civilization a continent. The 
recently invented art of printing spread the news of his voy- 
ages. Sailors from all lands steered their ships toward the 
West, anxious to win fame and wealth by some new discovery. 
Spain, following up the advantage Columbus had given her, 
hastened to take possession of the new country, and soon 
became the richest nation in the world. Intelligent men 
everywhere began to ask themselves whether other beliefs of 
their time were not as false as had been that of the shape of 
the earth. They determined to investigate for themselves the 
right and justice of long-established customs. The result was 
a mighty impetus to the liberty, Christianity, and enlightenment 
of mankind. 

III. John Cabot. 

33. His Plan. — John Cabot was an Italian sailor 'living in 
Bristol, on the coast of England. Having heard that Columbus 
had succeeded in reaching India, he concluded from a study of 
his maps that a shorter route to that coveted land could be 
found by sailing to the northwest, instead of to the southwest, 
as Columbus had done. He obtained from King Henry VII., 
of England, permission to sail under the English flag, and to 
take possession of any lands hitherto unseen by Christian peo- 
ple. The voyage was to be ''at his own proper cost and 
charge." He was to have exclusive control of the commerce 











^ 



F A G ^ 



#, ..^ 



THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 25 

with the countries he might discover, and was to pay to the 
king one-fifth of all the profits. 

34. His Voyage and Discovery. — In 1497, John Cabot set 
sail from Bristol with one small vessel and eighteen persons. 
His little ship crossed the ocean in safety, and reached the 
coast of Labrador. Cabot landed, and erecting a cross with 
two flags, — one of England, the other of Venice, his native city, 
— claimed the country for the English king. This was the first 
discovery of the mainland of America, and was more than a 
year before Columbus reached the shores of South America. 
Cabot sailed along the icy and barren coast until his 
provisions gave out, and then returned to England. (See 
map, p. 24.) 

35. The News in England. — The news that Cabot had 
reached India and the territories of the "Great Cham" caused 
excitement in England. He was treated with honor, and was 
known as the "Great Admiral." The king presented him 
with a small sum of money, and promised him an annual pen- 
sion. Although he had found no gold nor seen any human 
beings, yet he believed that the famous Island of Cipango 
(Japan), described by Marco Polo as rich in gold and precious 
jewels, lay near the land he had reached. So he found no 
trouble in obtaining permission to make a second voyage. 

36. Sebastian Cabot's Explorations. — It is probable that 
John Cabot died before preparations for his second voyage were 
completed. His son, Sebastian, took charge of the expedition, 
and with six ships and three hundred men set sail on the track 
of the former voyage. Reaching the shores of Labrador, he 
coasted toward the north, hoping to find a western passage 
around the land. At last his course was stopped by floating 
ice. Turning his ships, he followed the coast toward the south, 
as far, perhaps, as North Carolina. He landed in several 
places, and found the country inhabited by Indians. His fleet 



26 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

returned to England after an absence of six months.^ Sebas- 
tian Cabot, like his father, believed that he had explored the 
coast of Asia. • 

37. Result of the Discoveries of the Cabots. — John Cabot 
first reached the mainland of America, and discovered what 
was for a hundred years the shortest route known across the 
Atlantic (§ 68). After his voyage sailors were no longer afraid 
to leave the southwesterly track of Columbus, but struck out 
boldly into every part of the ocean. On the discovery of 
John Cabot and the explorations of his son, Sebastian, were 
based the claims of England to the continent of North America. 
The English were slow to take possession of the new country, 
allowing more than a hundred years to pass before a perma- 
nent settlement was made. Yet their title to the soil thus 
acquired was not forgotten. When we remember that in later 
years England outstripped all other nations in the struggle for 
ownership of North America, and that now Englishmen, or 
their descendants, control the continent from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, 
we can better realize the great importance of the discoveries of 
the Cabots. 

38. Summary. — Leif Ericson, a Norseman, in about the year 1000 
sailed from Iceland to Greenland, and thence to the continent of America, 
landing probably on the coast of Massachusetts. No permanent occupancy 
of the country followed. His voyage was known only by his own country- 
men, and was soon forgotten by them. Centuries afterward vague and 
imperfect accounts of Leif Ericson's visit were found in the Norse Sagas. 

Christopher Columbus, an Italian sailor, believing in the unproved theory 
of the roundness of the earth, sailed from Spain under the authority of the 

1 Afterward Sebastian Cabot entered the service of King Ferdinand of Spain, and 
was made Pilot Major of the Kingdom. In his old age he returned to England and 
was granted a liberal pension by King Edward VI. Unlike Columbus, the Cabots 
wrote no account of their voyages, and we have to depend upon uncertain reports of 
conversations with Sebastian Cabot. Even the burial places of these great mariners., 
who gave to England a continent, are unknown. 



': 



THREE GREAT VOYAGERS. 



27 



Spanish king and queen to find a westerly route to India. He reached 
one of the Bahama Islands on October 12, 1492. On a subsequent voyage, 
six years later (1498), he discovered the continent of South America, but 
died believing that he had reached the coast of Asia. His voyages were 
the means of revealing the American continent to the civilized world. 

John Cabot, an Italian seaman, sailing from England under the authority 
of the king, first discovered the mainland of America in 1497. His son, 
Sebastian, explored the coast from Labrador to Chesapeake Bay. On their 
discoveries and explorations the English claim to North America was based. 

39. Thought Questions. — Find on the map the home of the Northmen; 
give two reasons, from the situation of their country and its climate, why 
the Northmen were great sailors. Measure, by a scale of miles, the dis- 
tance from Norway to Iceland ; from Iceland to Greenland ; from Green- 
land to Labrador. To what nation does Greenland now belong ? Did Leif 
Ericson's voyage or that of Columbus require the greater heroism ? Ex- 
plain why. How do you account for the slight effect produced in the Old 
World by the discoveries of the Northmen ? If the art of printing had 
been in use in the year 1000, what might have been the result.'' Debate : 
Resolved that Leif Ericson rather than Columbus should be called the dis- 
coverer of America. Show how Marco Polo's description of the wealth of 
India hastened the discovery of America. Which of the great discov- 
erers were Italian? Why were they not employed by their own govern- 
ment? How did the United States celebrate the 400th anniversary of 
Columbus's discovery? 

Copy and fill out the follomng tabular statement ; write as many "Re- 
sults " as you can, and underline the most important : 

The Three Great Voyagers. 



Name 


Native 
Country. 


Government 
(if any) 

authorizing 
voyage. 


Date of 
Discovery. 


Land Dis- 
covered. 


Results. 


Leif Ericson 












Christopher C olumbus 












John Cabot 













28 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Topical Analysis (The Great Voyagers). 
ome. 



■■{"; 



17. His People. , . , . 
1^ Achievements 

r Object 

J liquipment. 

18. voyage. < ^^J^ 

[ Discovery. 

^ ,, r Upon his own country. 

19. Results, -l ,, . ... , ,,^ 

(^ Upon civinzed world. 

20. Norse Sagas. 

_ f Icfnorance of geography. 

21. Condition \ J' . , r, • 
r.. ^. ^ Revival of learnnig. 

of his Time. ] „, , . . t j- 

1^ Water-route to India. 

„ r City of Genoa. 

22. His Home.-^ „ , ,.^ 

(^ Larly hfe. 

_, f His belief. 

23. His Plan. -^ _ ... , , ,. 

"^ [ Errors in his calculations. 

_. f His native city. 

24. HisDisap- ,,. ^ , /^ ^ . 

<^ King John of Portugal. 

^ ' [^ Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. 

25. Success. Queen Isabella's aid. 
Equipment ; start. 

26. The Voyage. -^ Course. 
Discouragements. 

Land sighted. 



1 



27, 28. Discovery. , r^, . , 

(^ Claim made 

_ ^ . r Stormy weather. i 

29. The Return, i r, !■ • c • 1 
-^ (^ Reception in Spain. { 

30. Three Other f Settlement on Hayti. 

Voyages. \ South America discovered. 

31. Last Days. His poverty; his grave. 

(A new world revealed. 

32. Results. I Enlightenment of mankind hastened. 

f Nativity and home. 

33. John Cabot. I Conditions of his voyage. 

f Equipment. 

34. His voyage. | Land discovered. 

36. Sebastian Cabot. Voyage and explorations. 

f Shorter route across Atlantic. 

37. Results. I j^^^.^ ^^ England's claim. 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 29 

EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 

The Name of the Continent. 

40. Some years after Columbus' discovery, Amerigo Vespucci 
(called in Latin, Americus Vesputius), an Italian navigator, 
employed first by Spain, afterward by Portugal, made several 
voyages to the New World. While in the service of Portugal, 
in 1 501, Vespucci explored the coast of Brazil far enough to 
discover that that country was not part of India, as the 
northern lands visited by Columbus and the Cabots were still 
supposed to be. His explorations proved the existence of a 
new continent in the southern hemisphere. The news created 
almost as great an impression in the Old World as had Colum- 
bus' supposed discovery of a western route to Asia. Miiller, a 
German printer, who published Vespucci's description of this 
new southern continent, suggested that the country be called 
" Terra Americi," the Land of Americus. The suggestion was 
seized upon by geographers, and the name America, first re- 
stricted to South America, was afterward applied to the entire 
continent. 

Spanish Explorations. 

41. Spain's Advantage. — The discoveries of Columbus 
were magnificent triumphs for Spain, and gave her an ad- 
vantage over the other nations of Europe in the race of dis- 
covery and exploration that now followed. Portugal was 
Spain's greatest rival on the seas. To prevent the two 
nations from quarreling over the new lands in the west, the 
Pope issued a decree fixing a dividing line between their pos- 
sessions. He selected a meridian 370 leagues west of the 
Cape Verde Islands, and declared that all heathen lands west 
of this meridian should belong to Spain ; all east of it, to 



30 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Portugal. (See, from map, page 24, how this decision was an- 
other point in Spain's favor.) Every bold Spanish captain 
was now eager to win wealth and distinction by the conquest 
of new countries for his sovereign. Inspired by the heroic 
example of Columbus, they despised the fears that so recently 




Spanish Explorations. 

chilled the bravest hearts. Not strange seas, nor trackless 
forests, nor hostile savages could check these daring explorers. 

42. Florida Discovered. — Ponce de Leon had accom- 
panied Columbus on his second voyage, and was afterward 
made governor of one of the West India Islands. Having 
been deposed from his office, the old man brooded over his dis- 
grace, and longed for the strength and glory of his younger 
days. The Indians had told him that in the distant lands 
across the sea was a spring that could make forever young 
those who bathed in its waters. De Leon believed the story, 
and at his own expense fitted out an expedition to search for 
the wonderful fountain. On Easter Sunday, 15 12, he came in 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 3 1 

sight of land, which he named Florida, from the Spanish 
Pascua Florida (Flowery Easter). 

Years afterward he returned to estabHsh a colony. His 
men were attacked so fiercely by the Indians that they had to 
hurry to their ships, and Ponce de Leon was mortally wounded 
by an arrow. Sad that the old man should receive his death 
wound in the beautiful land where he had expected to gain im- 
mortal youth ! 



43. The Pacific Ocean. — Balboa, another Spanish explorer, 
sailed to the Isthmus of Panama, and heard from the Indians 
of a great sea which lay beyond the lands he had touched. 
With a small band of soldiers, he boldly set out through 
forests and across mountains toward the interior of the 
country. At last, from the top of a mountain peak, he caught 
sight of the blue waves of a great ocean. Reaching the shore, 
Balboa waded into the water, and waving his sword above his 
head, claimed for the king of Spain the ocean and all the 
lands it touched (15 13). His discovery proved North America 
to be a separate continent, and not a part of Asia.^ 

44. The World Circumnavigated. — Seven years later 
(1520), Magellan, a Portuguese sailor in the service of Spain, 
coasting along the southern part of South America, passed 
through the straits that bear his name, and sailed upon the 
ocean which Balboa had discovered. Magellan gave the 
name Pacific to the great ocean because he found it so 
peaceful during his voyage. Landing on one of the Phil- 
ippine Islands, he was killed in a battle with the natives. 
One of his five ships with eighteen men finally got back 
to Spain by way of the Cape of Good Hope. This was 
the first circumnavigation of the globe. The question 
of the shape of the earth was thus settled forever, 

1 As to South America see § 40. 



32 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



and a western route to India was found at last. (See map, 
page 24.) 

45. Conquest of Florida. — Ferdinand de Soto had been a 
soldier under Pizarro in the Spanish conquest of Peru. Re- 
turning to Spain, he was ambitious to rival the exploits of his 
former leader. The name of Florida was at that time given to 
the whole of the southern part of what is now the United 




De Soto's Expedition, 1539-1542. 

(The outlines and nannes of States are given for 

convenience in tracing De Soto's course.) 



States. De Soto determined to explore this vast region in the 
hope of finding gold. Landing on the western coast of the 
peninsula of Florida, he sent his ships back, and with 600 
men, started through the forests and swamps toward the 
north. His men were dressed in gay uniforms and mounted 
on fine horses. They were supplied with every kind of 
weapon then known, and besides took with them bloodhounds 
to use against the Indians and chains to bind their captives. 
For three years De Soto's band wandered through the present 
states of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, in the 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 33 

vain search for gold — their numbers constantly diminishing 
from attacks of the Indians and from wasting sickness. 

46. Discovery of the Mississippi. — At last, in 1541, De 
Soto came in sight of the Mississippi River near where the city 
of Memphis now stands. For the first time the upper course 
of the great " Father of Waters " was seen by a white man.^ 
Exposure and repeated disappointments, however, had broken 
the health and spirits of the adventurous Spaniard, and he died 
the next year. The Indians had feared De Soto, and to con- 
ceal his death from them, his body was buried at midnight in 
the mighty river he had discovered. His men wandered, and 
probably entered the present State of Texas ; then returning to 
the river, they floated down to the Gulf, finally reaching the 
Spanish settlements in Mexico. 

47. Explorations in the West. — While Magellan was mak- 
ing his famous voyage around the world, Mexico with its rich 
mines and ancient civilization (§ 2) was being conquered by 
the Spanish general, Cortez. From Mexico expeditions were 
sent out to explore the country to the north. Coronado was 
the most prominent explorer of this region. California was 
visited and the Pacific coast explored as far north as Oregon. 

48. Texas was traversed from the Gulf of Mexico to its 
northwestern boundary in 1528 by Cabeza de Vaca and three 
companions, the sole survivors of an unsuccessful attempt to 
explore Florida. Having lost their ships off the Florida coast, 
they built a few rude boats and coasted along the shores of the 
Gulf of Mexico until they reached Texas. They landed some- 
v/here near Galveston Island and passed through the country 
northwest as far as the Rio Grande River. Proceeding to- 

1 Recent investigations indicate that the mouth of the Mississippi was entered in 
1 5 19 by Alvarez de Pineda, an explorer of the Gulf coast. 



34 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



ward the Pacific coast, they were met by some Spanish soldiers 
who escorted them to the city of Mexico. 



49. The First Permanent Settlement. — Pedro Menendez, 
hearing that a company of Huguenots, or French Protestants, 
had formed a settlement on the St. Johns River in Florida, 
resolved to expel the intruders and colonize the country for 
the king of Spain. He set sail with a large fleet and over 
two thousand people. Landing on the northeast coast of 
Florida, he laid the foundation of a town which he called St. 
Augustine. This was in the year 1565, and is important, as it 

marks the first per- 
manent European 
settlement within 
the present limits 
of the United 
States. Some of 
the old stone 
^^^ houses built by 
Menendez' men 
over three hundred 
years ago are still 
standing. 

Pushing through 
the woods with a 
band of soldiers, 
Menendez surprised the French fort and put to death the help- 
less garrison. Above the mangled corpses this inscription was 
placed : " Not as to Frenchmen, but as to heretics." When 
the news of the massacre reached France, a brave Frenchman 
named Gourges resolved to avenge the deed. He sold his 
property, purchased ships, and with one hundred and fifty 
men sailed secretly to Florida. A Spanish fort near the ruins 
of the former French settlement was surprised and taken, and 




Old Spanish Gateway at St. Augustine. 
(Called the " City Gate.") 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 35 

its garrison hung from the surrounding trees with this inscrip- 
tion above them: " Not as to Spaniards, but as to murderers." 
Gourges did not have enough men to warrant an attack on St. 
Augustine, so he sailed back to France. 

50. Other Settlements. — Before the close of the sixteenth 
century other Spanish settlements were made at Ysleta,^ on the 
Rio Grande, near El Paso, Texas, and at Santa Fe, New Mex- 
ico. The gold mines of Mexico and Peru now became so 
attractive to the Spaniards that they made little effort afterward 
to extend their explorations or settlements. 

51. Extent of Spanish Claims. ^ — By virtue of the discov- 
eries of Columbus and the grant of the Pope, Spain made a 
general claim to the whole of the continent of America, save 
Brazil, which she conceded to Portugal (§ 41). A more definite 
claim was made to the region then known as Florida (embra- 
cing all the southern part of the United States) and to the 
Pacific coast. The Spanish explorers, De Leon, De Soto, 
Coronado, and others, had traversed this territory and had 
established, as they claimed, the right of Spain to its owner- 
ship. The period of Spanish explorations in North America 
covered about a hundred years, from 1492 to the close of the 
next century. 

French Explorations. 

52. The Newfoundland Fisheries. — When the Cabots re- 
turned from their great voyages of discovery, they reported that 
the northern shores they had visited swarmed with fish to such 
an extent as sometimes to stay the speed of their ships. The 
men of Brittany, in France, were hardy sailors and great fisher- 

1 There is some ground for the claim that the settlement at Ysleta was made before 
that at St. Augustine. 



36 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



men, and in a few years after the news of Cabot's voyage 
reached France the banks of Newfoundland began to be fre- 
quented by French fishing- vessels. Cape Breton Island was 
named in honor of the home of these fishermen. The fisheries 
and the fur trade with the 
Indians proved so profitable 
that the attention of the 
French people was directed 
to this part of America, and 
the way was paved for the 




French occupa- 
tion of Canada. 

53. The At- 
lantic Coast. — 
Twenty-seven 
years after Ca- 
bot's discovery 
of the continent, 
nearly the same 
extent of coast 
from Nova Sco- 
tia to Chesa- 
peake Bay was 
explored by Ver- 
azzani, an Italian in the French service (1524). Verazzani 
claimed the country for the French king, and named it New 
France, ignoring the claims of England. 



French Explorations and Settlennents. 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 3/ 

54. The St. Lawrence River. — Cartier, a native French- 
man, on the day known to the CathoHcs as St. Lawrence Day, 
entered a gulf which he called the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
(1535). He ascended the stream now known as the St. Law- 
rence River, and took possession of the country for the king 
of France. On a subsequent voyage he made an unsuccessful 
attempt to found a colony. Many years afterward the land 
which Cartier then claimed for his king became the great 
French stronghold in America. 

55. Attempts at Settlement in the South. — The French 
Huguenots made two unsuccessful attempts to plant colonies : 
one in South Carolina, the other in Florida. The settlers 
called the first settlement Carolina in honor of the French King 
Charles, or Carolus IX. When their provisions were exhausted, 
they abandoned their fort and sailed back to France. The 
Florida colony on the St. Johns River was attacked by the 
Spaniards under Menendez (§ 49), and all the settlers were 
massacred. 

56. The First Permanent Settlement. — Civil wars between 
Protestants and Catholics so distracted the people of France 
that it was more than fifty years after Cartier's unsuccessful 
colony on the St. Lawrence before another attempt was made 
to establish a French settlement in this region. In 1605, De 
Monts received from the French king, for the purpose of fur 
trade, a grant of land lying between the fortieth and forty- 
sixth parallels (from New Jersey to Nova Scotia). He estab- 
lished a colony at Port Royal (now Annapolis), Nova Scotia. 
This was the first permanent French settlement in America. 

A more important settlement was made three years later 
(1608) by Champlain at Quebec. The founding of Quebec 
marks the beginning of French occupancy of Canada. The 
settlement soon became a city, and was the capital of the 
French possessions in America. 



38 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



57. The Great Lakes. — The French fur traders and trap- 
pers gradually ascended the St. Lawrence. Keeping on good 
terms with the Indians, they pushed along the shores of the 
Great Lakes, until a line of trading-posts was established from 
the St. Lawrence to Lake Superior. To the heroism of the 
missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church, the conquest of the 
vast lake region for France is largely due. Their patient en- 
durance and their self-devotion won the respect and affection 

of the Indians, and gave 
to the French an influence 
over the savage tribes that 
was possessed by no other 
people. 

58. The Mississippi 
Valley. — It was more than 
a hundred years after De 
Soto's discovery of the Mis- 
sissippi before the mighty 
river was again visited by 
a white man. The upper 
course of the stream was 
finally reached by French 
missionaries and traders 
from the Great Lakes. In 1682, La Salle, an explorer of 
the Great Lake region, resolved to sail down the Mississippi 
to its mouth, hoping to discover, by means of the great river, 
a passage across the continent to India ; or, in any event, to 
establish a fort at the mouth of the river, thus securing con- 
trol of its commerce as well as possession of the country for his 
king. Floating down the river with a few companions, he 
reached the broad bosom of the Gulf of Mexico. La Salle was 
impressed with the importance of his achievement, as with 
solemn ceremonies he claimed for the crown of France all the 




La Salle. 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 39 

country drained by the great river and its tributaries. He 
named the vast region Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV. 

La Salle resolved to plant a French colony at the mouth of 
the Mississippi. Returning to France, he told his story to the 
King. Four ships were given him, with men and supplies, to 
establish the settlement he desired. Sailing back by way of 
Florida, he missed the mouth of the Mississippi, and landed at 
Matagorda Bay, on the coast of Texas (1685). After several 
vain attempts to reach the Mississippi by land. La Salle was 
assassinated by one of his own men. A settlement made by 
his followers on the Texas coast perished. 

The mouth of the Mississippi was again visited in 1699 by 
Iberville, who made a settlement at Biloxi, in the present State 
of Mississippi, afterwards removing it to Mobile. New Orleans 
was founded in 17 18. 

59. Extent of French Claims. — After the failure of the 
French settlements in South Carolina and Florida, the French 
claim to the Atlantic coast south of the Penobscot River, based 
on Verazzani's explorations, was abandoned to other nations. 
The explorations of Cartier, De Monts, Champlain, La Salle, 
and the French missionaries and traders gave to France pos- 
session of a vast crescent-shaped region from the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence to Lake Superior, thence down the Mississippi Val- 
ley, from the source of the river to its mouth. The French 
continued their explorations in this territory until their posses- 
sions in America were wrested from them by the English in 
1763 (§ 202). 

English Explorations. 

60. Indifference of the English. — After the discoveries of 
the Cabots the English lagged behind the Spanish and French 
in the exploration of the New World. They were disappointed 
at the failure to find the gold, silks, and spices of India. More- 



40 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

over, the Roman Catholic rulers of England hesitated to set 
aside the Pope's decree giving the new continent to Spain. 
Until the reign of Queen Elizabeth, nearly a hundred years 
after the Cabots' great voyages, no other noteworthy attempt at 
exploration of the western continent was made by the English. 

6i. Description of the Florida Coast. — Sir John Hawkins 
was an English sailor and slave-trader, who was knighted by 
Queen Elizabeth as a reward for his services in a great naval 
battle wdth the Spaniards. On one of his slave-trading expedi- 
tions he sailed along the whole coast of Florida. This was in 
the same year as the founding of St. Augustine. Delighted, as 
Ponce de Leon had been, with the beauty of the country, he 
wrote a full and careful description of it, and took back with 
him samples of tobacco, potatoes, and other products of the 
soil. This was the first account of Florida by an Englishman.^ 
Hawkins hoped to draw the attention of his countrymen to this 
beautiful region, that English colonies might be planted there. 
Attempting to reach Florida on a subsequent voyage, he was 
driven by storm to the Mexican coast, where he was attacked 
by a Spanish fleet, and all but two of his ships were captured 
or destroyed. 

62. Sir Francis Drake and the Pacific Coast. — Sir 

Francis Drake had served under Sir John Hawkins, and was 
commander of one of the two ships that barely escaped the 
Spaniards on the coast of Mexico. From that day he swore 
vengeance on the subjects of Spain. Setting sail from Eng- 
land with two vessels, Drake attacked one Spanish settlement 
after another. He landed on the Isthmus of Panama, and 

1 In Hawkins's narrative appears the following quaint mention of the use of to- 
bacco: "The Floridians, when they travel, have a kinde of herbe dryed, which, with 
a cane and an earthen cup in the end, with fire, and the dryed herbs put together, do 
sucke thro the cane the smoke thereof, which smoke satisfyeth their hunger, and 
therewith they live four or five days without meat or drink." 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 



41 



from near the spot where Balboa made his great discovery, 
caught sight of the Pacific Ocean. Falling on his knees, he 
prayed that he might at some time sail a ship on that sea. 
On his next voyage, with a larger fleet, Drake sailed through 
the Straits of Magellan and out into the Pacific Ocean. 








English Explorations. 



Many Spanish ships loaded with treasures from the mines of 
Peru fell into his hands. ^ Coasting toward the north as far as 
California, he entered a " convenient and fit harbor " (probably 
San Francisco Bay). He found the natives very friendly. They 
insisted on crowning Drake as their king, and he modestly 
accepted the honor for the queen of England, naming the 

1 One treasure-ship alone, captured by Drake, was valued by the Spaniards at 
three million dollars. The memory of the English " Dragon," as he was called, was 
detested by the Spaniards for centuries afterward. 



42 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

country New Albion. He returned to England by way of the 
Cape of Good Hope, and reached his home in September, 
1580. On this long and perilous voyage Drake had inflicted 
untold injury on his enemies, the Spaniards, had planted the 
English flag in regions before unexplored, and had made the 
second circumnavigation of the globe. 

63. The Old Problem. — The hope of finding a western 
route from England to India had not been abandoned. 
Vespucci, Balboa, and Magellan had proved that America was 
not a part of Asia. Yet it was for a long time afterward be- 
lieved that the New World was a group of large islands, and 
that a passage could be found through them to the Pacific. A 
Portuguese sailor. Da Gama, at the close of the fifteenth cen- 
tury had rounded the southern extremity of Africa and dis- 
covered for his nation a route to India in that way. (See map, 
p. 24.) Magellan, sailing under the Spanish flag, passed around 
Cape Horn, and thus opened up to the Spaniards a passage 
to the coveted land. Ineffectual attempts were made by the 
English to find a northeast passage around the northern coast 
of Europe. 

64. The North^vest Passage. — In the efforts to find a pas- 
sage to India around the northern extremity of America, the 
English took the lead. Martifi Frobisher made three expe- 
ditions with the twofold purpose of finding a northwest 
passage and of searching for gold. He discovered the bay 
now known as Frobisher's Bay and brought back to England 
more than thirteen hundred tons of yellowish ore, which proved 
to be of little value (1576). 

Captain John Davis sailed into the strait which now bears 
his name, but was compelled by the severe weather to return 
to England (1585). 

He?iry Hudson entered the great bay whose name now pre- 
serves his memory (16 10). For eight months his ship was 



1 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 43 

locked in by ice. A mutiny then occurred, and Hudson with 
a few companions was set adrift in an open boat and never 
heard of afterward.^ 

William Baffin, with a crew of seventeen men, coasted 
along the western shore of Greenland, and (in i6i6) entered 
the great sea since known as Baffin's Bay. 

(In 1850 the English Captain McClure discovered a "north- 
west passage " ; the ice, however, makes it useless.) 

65. First Attempt at Colonization. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert 
was the first Englishman to secure a charter for colonizing the 
New World. He made two unsuccessful expeditions with this 
purpose, the first in 1578. On his second voyage, five years 
later, he took possession of Newfoundland, but, meeting with 
disaster, started homeward without making a settlement. The 
ship in which he sailed went down in a storm with all on 
board. He had refused to return in a larger vessel, remarking 
to the captain, " It is as near to Heaven by sea as by land." 

66. Second Attempt at Colonization. — ^/> Walter Raleigh 
was a favorite of Queen 
Elizabeth. He obtained a 
charter for colonizing all the 
country between the parallels 
of thirty-five and forty-five 
degrees (from South Carolina 
to Nova Scotia), and fitted 
out two ships for an explor- 
ing expedition to find a suit- 
able location. The queen 
positively forbade him to join 
the expedition himself, as she 
was unwilling for her favorite Paieigh. 

1 While in the employ of the Dutch the previous year Hudson had discovered the 
river now known as Hudson River (§ 72). 




44 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

to risk his life in " dangerous sea-fights." His vessel landed at 
Roanoke Island on the coast of North Carolina (1584). The 
men were charmed with the magnificent trees, the abundant 
grapes, and the fertility of the soil. They carried back glow- 
ing accounts of the adaptability of the country for settlement. 

67. Settlements on Roanoke Island. — The country was 
named Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. Be- 
fore the close of the century Raleigh made two attempts to 
establish a settlement. The first colony remained a year on 
Roanoke Island and then, provisions giving out, returned to 
England in one of the ships of Sir Francis Drake, who hap- 
pened to be coasting that way. The second expedition set 
sail for Chesapeake Bay, but also landed on Roanoke Island 
(1587). No communication was had with England by the little 
colony for three years. Finally, when relief was sent to them, 
the settlement was in ruins and no traces of the colonists 
could be found save the word CROATOAN ^ carved on a tree 
near by. Whether they had been murdered by the Indians or 
had wandered into the wilderness to starve is not known 

Raleigh, having spent a large fortune in these unsuccessful 
enterprises, was compelled to abandon the colonization of 
Virginia. He wrote to a friend, however, " I shall yet live to 
see it an English nation." Although his efforts at coloniza- 
tion were failures, yet he had drawn the attention of his 
countrymen to Virginia as a region adapted to settlement. 
The founding of the first permanent English settlement in 
America, twenty years later, was partly the result of his labors.'^ 

1 Croatoan was the name of a small island a few miles distant. It is possible 
that the colonists perished in an attempt to remove to this island. 

2 From his returned colonists Raleigh learned the use of tobacco, and introduced 
it at the English court. The custom of smoking or " drinking " tobacco, as it was 
called, soon became general in England. Raleigh also planted some specimens of 
the potato on his Irish estates, and thus brought this important article of food into 
general use. See § 61, footnote. 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 45 

68. Third Attempt at Colonization Bartholomew Gas- 

nold in 1602 sailed from England in a small ship with twenty- 
three persons, eleven of whom expected to remain and 
establish a colony. He took the most direct course across 
the Atlantic — between the northern route of the Cabots and 
the southern pathway of the Spaniards — thereby shortening 
the distance a thousand miles (§ 37). Coasting along the 
shores of New England, he loaded his ship with sassafras 
and cedar. A quarrel arose among his men, and all idea of 
a settlement was abandoned. Returning to England, his cargo 
was seized by Sir Walter Raleigh, because the expedition had 
been undertaken without his consent and in violation of his 
"patent " or grant to Virginia (§ 66). 

69. First Permanent English Settlement. — A commercial 
company, known as the ''London Company," obtained from 
King James I. a grant to the region embraced in Raleigh's 
former patent. In 1607, a settlement was founded by this 
company at Jamestown, on the banks of the James River, in 
Virginia. This was the first permanent English settlement in 
America. (For full account see §§ 80-82.) 

70. Extent of English Claims.— The discoveries of the 
Cabots and the subsequent explorations of English sailors 
gave England a claim to the eastern coast of North America 
from Labrador to Florida. The western boundary of this 
territory was not defined. The English claim extended in- 
definitely, and was limited only by the extent of the continent. 
Queen EUzabeth made no attempt to establish her title to the 
Pacific coast based on the explorations of Sir Francis Drake. 
The period of English exploration begins with Hawkins and 
Drake, in the last part of the sixteenth century. English ex- 
plorations and settlements in the eastern part of the present 
limits of the United States went hand in hand, and continued 
to near the middle of the eighteenth century. 



46 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Explorations of the Dutch. 

71. Holland in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. 

— It was more than a hundred years after the discovery of 
America when the Dutch began their explorations in the New 
World. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the long 

and bloody struggle 
to free Holland from 
Spanish tyranny came 
to a close, and the 
independence of the 
Netherlands was es- 
tablished. In an age 
of bigotry and perse- 
cution, Holland estab- 
lished religious free- 
dom in her borders 
and became a refuge 
for the oppressed of 
other lands. Enter- 
ing upon a career of 
prosperity, she now 
became one of the 




Dutch Explorations. 



richest nations in the world. ' The genius and bravery of her 
naval captains gave her fleets the command of the ocean. 
Half the commerce of Europe was carried in her ships. Her 
great trading companies began to extend their operations 
around the globe. 

72. The Hudson River.— Sir Henry Hudson,^ an English- 
man, after making two voyages in a vain search for a north- 
east passage to the Pacific Ocean, left the service of his coun- 
trymen and entered the employ of a Dutch trading company. 

1 The same Hudson who afterward discovered Hudson's Bay, and perished in its 
waters (§ 64). 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 47 

In the Dutch ship " Half Moon," he started on the track of his 
former voyages, with the same purpose in view. Stopped by 
the ice off the northern coast of Norway, he turned toward the 
west, hoping to find the looked-for passage in that direction. 
In 1609, he entered New York Bay, and sailed up the waters of 
the majestic river which now bears his name. Arriving at the 
present site of Albany, and seeing no prospect of reaching the 
western ocean, he returned. 

73. Subsequent Explorations and Settlement.— Dutch sail- 
ors explored the coast from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod. 
Trading-posts were established, and a profitable fur trade 
with the Indians was begun. In 1623 thirty Dutch fami- 
lies, sent over by the Dutch West India Company, established 
themselves on Manhattan Island, the present site of New York 
City. The settlement was named New Amsterdam, and became 
the capital of the Dutch colony. About the same time a settle- 
ment was made at Fort Orange (Albany). The Dutch continued 
to establish trading-posts in the present limits of New York, 
Connecticut, and New Jersey. 

74. Extent of Dutch Claims. — The Dutch claimed the 
valley of the Hudson River, and the country explored by them 
from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod. In honor of the mother 
country, they named this region New Netherland. The period 
of Dutch exploration and settlement, beginning with Henry 
Hudson, 1609, continued for about fifty-five years, when the 
territory controlled by this people was surrendered to the 
English (§ 168). 

The Swedes in America. 

75. Settlement. — Sweden, the home of the ancient North- 
men, had but a small share in the colonization of the country 
that her daring sailors had visited so many centuries before. 



48 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



The Swedish King, Gustavus Adolphus, the ablest monarch of 
his time, realized the commercial advantage to be derived from 
a Swedish settlement in the New \\'orld, and resolved to estab- 
lish a colony in America. The brave king was killed in bat- 
tle, but his plan of a Swedish 
settlement was carried out. In 
1638, a settlement was made in 
the present State of Delaware, 
near the site of Wilmington, 
and was called Christiana, in 
honor of the infant queen, 
daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. 

76. Extent of Swedish 
Claims. — The Swedes explored 
the country from the southern 
cape of Delaware Eay to the 
falls of the Delaware River, 
where Trenton now stands. 
This region, embracing the present State of Delaware and 
the southern half of New Jersey, was claimed by them, and 
was called New Sweden. The period of Swedish exploration 
and settlement was brief, covering about seventeen years. 
The territory of the Swedes then passed into the hands of the 
Dutch of New York (§ 167). 




Swedish Explorations. 



77. Summary. — A German printer suggested the name Amcrua, in 
honor of Amerigo Vespucci, who had visited and described the coast of 
Brazil. The name was first restricted to South America, North America 
being considered part of India. 

^Vithin the present limits of the United States, five European nations 
explored and made claim to territory. Of these the Spaniards took the 
lead. Their explorations, beginning with the voyage of Columbus, ex- 
tended over a period of about a hundred years, and were devoted to the 
search for gold rather than the founding of colonies. By men in the 
service of Spain the Pacific Ocean was discovered, the world was first 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 



49 



circumnavigated, the southern and western portions of the United States 
were explored and conquered, and the first permanent settlement, St. Au- 
gustine (1565), was made. 

The French explored a portion of the Atlantic coast, and made ineffec- 
tual attempts to plant colonies in South Carolina and Florida. French 
missionaries and traders explored and secured control of the St. Lawrence, 




jjjr/^ ^ M E R 1 q'i^JI 



European Claims, 1650. 

the Great Lake region, and the Mississippi Valley. Their first permanent 
settlements were made at Port Royal, N. S. (1605), and at Quebec (160S). 
For over two hundred years their explorations within the present limits of 
the United States continued. 

The first to discover the mainland of America, the English claimed 
the continent from Labrador to Florida. By an Englishman the second 
circumnavigation of the globe was made, and the coast of California was 



50 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



visited. English ships explored the northern shores of North America 
in the effort to find a northwest passage to India. Two unsuccessful efforts 
were made to form an English settlement on Roanoke Island, N. C. The 
first permanent English settlement was made at Jamestown (1607). Eng- 
land, beginning her active explorations many years later than Spain or 



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Chart of Discoveries and Explorations. 



France, continued them through her colonists nearly two centuries, or until 
the independence of the United States was won. 

The BufcA explored and claimed the valley of the Hudson, and the coast 
from Cape Cod to Delaware Bay. Their explorations in this region con- 
tinued about fifty years, until the English conquered it from them. They 
established their first settlement on Manhattan Island, the present site of 
New York City (1623). 

The Swedes made a settlement at Fort Christiana, at the mouth of the 
Delaware River (1638). They claimed the present State of Delaware and 
the southern part of New Jersey, but were overcome by the Dutch of New 
York seventeen years after their first settlement. 



EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. 5 I 

78. Thought Questions. — How do you account fof Spain's outstripping 
other nations in the exploration of the New World ? Has Spain any posses- 
sions in America to-day ? Mention some European nations that took no 
part in the colonization of America. What motives chiefly influenced the 
Spanish explorers ? The French ? The English ? The Dutch ? The 
Swedes? Which nation was especially successful in its dealings with the 
Indians? Can you explain why? What nation was first to prove that the 
New World was not part of India? How was this done? What can you 
say of the power of the Pope at that time ? What discoveries were the 
result of an effort to find a passage to India ? In what instance did reli- 
gious bigotry lead to a settlement ? What discoveries and explorations 
were made by Italians? What memorial of Sir Walter Raleigh remains 
in our geographical names ? What were the causes of the failure of the 
first attempts at settlement by the English ? Show how the European 
claims overlapped each other. Copy on blackboard the chart of discoveries 
and explorations. 



Topical Analysis (Explorations and Settlements). 

AMERICUS VESPUTIUS : 40. | Explorations 

[^ Name of contment. 



r r) 

41. Spain's Advantages. -^ 



iscoveries of Columbus. 

Decree of the Pope. 

^ , ^ r Purpose of voyage. 

42. Ponce de Leon. ■{ ,^. ^ /^^ 

[^ Discovery and fate. 

Discovery. 



43. Balboa. , ^^. . 
^ ' Claim 

.,. Magellan. {-JX. 



f Conquest of Florida. 
. i Di 



45, 46. De Soto, -j Discovery of Mississippi. 
Fate. 

Mexico. 



47- Cortez, Coronado, etc. , .. ,.- 

' '1^ California. 

48. De Vaca: Journey through Texas. 

r Purpose of voyage. 

49. Menendez. < Settlement. 

[ Conflict with Huguenots. 

50. Other Settlements. 

51. Territory Claimed. 



52 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

„. , f Coasts frequented. 

52. Fishermen. < ^ , 
^ \ Results. 

J Coast explored. 

I Claim. 

54. Cartier : River discovered. 

„ ^ f Settlement in South Carolina. 

SS- Huguenots. -I ^ , . ^, .. 

l^ Settlement in Florida. 

/- TV «-• X -, ^ .■ f First permanent settlement. 

56. De Monts and Cartier. ^ ^ , ^ . 
1^ Quebec founded. 

_ , , „- . . r Region claimed for France. 

57. Traders and Missionaries. < ^^ . r • • 

[^ Heroism of missionaries. 

vi T c n r r)iscovery of mouth of Mississippi. 
^o. L18L oalle. ^ , , , 

1^ Attempt to plant settlement. 

59. Territory Claimed. 

60. Indifference of English : Causes. 

61. Hawkins: Description of Florida coast. 
r Hatred of Spanish. 

62. Sir Francis Drake. *| Pacitic coast visited. 
[^ Circumnavigation of globe. ^^ 

r Success of Portugal. ^M 

6^. Water Route to India, -s Success of Spain. 

[ Attempts of English. 

64. Efforts to find a Northwest Passage. ^k 

, _.-. ^ \ Secures charter. ^m 

6v Gilbert. \ , 

1^ Attempts at settlement. 

r Charter. j 

66, 67. Raleigh. \ Voyage of exploration. I 



[ Attempts at settlement, 
r R 
6S. Gosnold. 



J Route 



1^ Attempt at settlement. 

Grant obtained. 



69. London Company. , ^. 
1^ First permanent settlement. 

70. Territory Claimed. 
71. Holland in i6th and 17th Centuries. 

f Purpose of voyage. 
DUTCH. ^ ''• "''^^^°- \ River discovered*] 

73. West India Company : Settlement. 

74. Territory Claimed. 

etirc'r.TOTT f " ^ Gustavus Adolphus : Settlement planned by him. 
76. Territory Claimed. 



THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 



FOUNDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
ENGLISH COLONIES. 

79. The True Beginning of Our History. — In the estab- 
lishment of the lirst permanent EngUsh settlement in America, 
we find the true beginning of our country's history. All that 
comes before this has been preparatory — like the clearing off 
of stones, trees, and undergrowth from a piece of land prepar- 
atory to building a house. Adventurous sea captains, daring 
soldiers, enterprising traders, and gold hunters have passed 
and repassed before our eyes in the preceding pages. Now the 
scene changes, and the curtain rises upon the log-cabin home 
of the settler with its background of growing crops. Hereto- 
fore Spaniards and Frenchmen have been the most conspicu- 
ous figures ; now Englishmen are to play the leading part. We 
shall see how the courage, endurance, and genius for self-gov- 
ernment of these Englishmen overcame every obstacle and 
wrested from other nations the control of the continent. 



the southerit colonies. 

Virginia. 

80. The Founders of Virginia. — Sixteen years after the 
disappearance of Raleigh's last colony on Roanoke Island, a 
movement was begun that resulted in the first permanent Eng- 
lish settlement in America. Two men stand out prominently 
as the leading spirits in this enterprise, — the one already 
famous as a sailor and explorer, the other as a soldier and ad- 
venturer. Their names were Bartholomew Gosnold and John 
Smith. 



54 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Captain Gosnold^ we have already learned (§ 68), made the 
first direct voyage across the Atlantic, and sailed along the New 
England coast. He was now .eager to plant a colony in the 
milder climate farther South. 

Captain John Smith was both writer and fighter, and one of 
the greatest adventurers in an adventurous age. While yet a 
boy he left his home, and enlisted as a private soldier in the 
wars of Holland. Joining the forces against the Turks, he was 
captured and made a skive. He killed his master and escaped 

to Russia, and thence when 
only twenty-five years of age, 
returned by way of Germany, 
France, Spain, and ]\Iorocco 
to England. The Virginia 
enterprise drew Smith and 
Gosnold together, and they 
became warm advocates of 
the scheme for establishing 
a colony. 

8i. The London Compa- 
ny. — The expensive failures 
of Raleigh had discouraged 
all attempts at colonizing 
Virginia, and no private person was now willing to furnish the 
necessary means for undertaking another settlement. There 
were in England at this time, however, several great trading 
companies that were growing rich from their commerce with 
distant lands. The success of two of these — the Muscovy 
Company and the East India Company — induced a number 
of merchants and prominent men to embark with Gosnold and 
Smith in a similar enterprise. Accordingly two new companies 
were organized with authority from the king to establish 
colonies in America and control the commerce of the new 




Captain John Smith. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



55 



settlements. These companies were known as the London and 
the Plymouth Companies, from the residence of their principal 
stock-holders, and they were granted in equal parts the vast 
region between the parallels of 34° and 45°, or what is now the 
southern boundary of North Carolina and the middle of Nova 
Scotia. The southern half of this grant was given to the 
London Company, and was called South Virginia ; the northern 
half to the Plymouth Company, and called North Virginia. 

82. The First Settlement. — Colonists were sent out by 
both Plymouth and London Companies the same year (1606). 
The Plymouth Company attempted a settlement on the coast 
of Maine, but the place was abandoned 




Sett.ements in Virginia 



by the colonists after the first winter. 
The London Company was 
more successful. In the last 
days of the year, a little fleet 
of three vessels, under the 
command of Captain Christo- 
pher Newport, set sail down 
the Thames for South Virginia. 
Captain Gosnold commanded 
one of the vessels, and John 
Smith was among the passengers. After a stormy voyage they 
entered Chesapeake Bay, giving the names of the two eldest 
sons of the king to the capes that guard its mouth. Sailing up 
the river known to the Indians as the Powhatan, but called by 
the colonists the James River in honor of their sovereign, they 
chose a flat peninsula on its northern bank as the place for 
their settlement. Jamestown was the name these loyal English- 
men applied to their group of huts. The year 1607 marks 
the date of this, the first permanent English settlement in 
America — just one hundred and ten years after Cabot's 
great discovery. 



56 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

83. The First Colonists. — There were one hundred and 
five persons in the little company that laid the foundations of 
Jamestown. More than half of the whole number were '* gen- 
tlemen " unused to manual labor, — and so were poorly fitted 
for the rough life of the wilderness. The colonists were either 
unmarried men or else they had left their wives and children 
behind. Consequently they did not look upon their cabins as 
homes in the true sense of the word. Most of them expected 
to find gold and pearls, and in a short time to return to 
England loaded with riches.^ Some were influenced by a 
desire to convert the Indians ; others were fond of adventure, 
and wished to extend the English dominions in America. All 
slept under the trees in the pleasant May weather until their 
log cabins were built. 

84. The First Charter. — The form of government of the 
colonists was as poorly adapted to their surroundings as were 
the settlers themselves. Queen Elizabeth was dead, and the 
reign of James I. had begun. King James was called by a wit 
of the time, " The most learned fool in Christendom," and the 
complicated form of government he devised for the first Virgin- 
ians seems to justify the epithet. Besides the London Com- 
pany there were to be two governing bodies called " Councils," 
one residing in England, appointed by the king, the other, a 
subordinate Council in Virginia, appointed by the English 
Council. The Company was empowered to coin money and 
collect taxes. Perhaps the worst provision was that which 
required all the products of the colonists to be brought to a 

1 In a popular English play of that period, one of the characters, speaking of Vir- 
ginia, is made to say : " I tell thee golde is more plentifuU there than copper is with 
us ; and for as much redde copper as I can bring I'll have thrice the weight in golde. 
Why, man, all their dripping pans are pure golde. and all the chains with which they 
chain up their streets are massive golde ; all the prisoners they take are fettered in 
golde ; and for rubies and diamonds they goes forth in holy dayes and gather 'em by 
the seashore to hang on their children's coates and stick in their children's caps." 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



57 



public store-house, and there apportioned by an officer as they 
were needed. Thus, as no man could enjoy the products of 
his own labor, there was no reward for industry, and laziness 



was encouraged. 



85. Troubles. — More than once it seemed that the failures 
at Roanoke Island were to be repeated at Jamestown. The 
place was low and un- 
healthful. Malaria arising 
from the marshy banks of 
the river caused slow 
fevers which swept away 
more than half of the 
colonists before the first 
summer was ended. In 
the beginning of 1608 two 
more ship-loads of immi- 
grants were sent over by 
the London Company. 
The mad search of the 
newcomers for gold caused 
the cultivation of the soil 
to be neglected, while the 
wretched plan of' a " com- 
mon store-house " encour- 
aged idleness. In the 
winter of 1609-16 10, pro- 
visions were entirely ex- 
hausted, and the starving colonists began to live on roots and 
acorns, and skins of horses. One man, driven to insanity, 
killed his wife for food. The horrid deed was discovered and 
he was burnt to death as a punishment. Still the suffering 
continued. The miserable survivors in despair resolved to 
abandon Virginia and return to England. They buried their 




Ruins of Jamestown. 



$8 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

cannon, and embarking in two ships floated down the river and 
out of sight of the huts of Jamestown. Fortunately before 
proceeding far they met Lord Delaware with a fleet and boun- 
tiful supplies. All returned to the deserted settlement, and 
the colony was saved. The next year more colonists arrived, 
and the settlement of Henrico (now Richmond) was founded. 

86. The Great Deliverer. — In the perils of the colony dur- 
ing the flrst two years of its existence, there 'was one man whose 
clear head and strong arm repeatedly saved the settlement from 
destruction. Captain John Smith, under the absurd charge of 
an attempt to make himself " King of Virginia," had been at 
first deposed from his position as a member of the Council by 
his jealous associates. He demanded a trial by jury, and was 
triumphantly acquitted, his leading prosecutor being compelled 
to pay him two hundred pounds damages. Disgusted with the 
incapacity of their rulers, the colonists finally made Smith pres- 
ident of the Council, and entrusted the management of their 
affairs to him. " No persuasion," writes an old chronicler, 
" could persuade him to starve." Assembling all the settlers, 
he addressed the idlers thus : " I protest, by that God that 
made me, you shall not only gather for yourselves, but for those 
that are sick ; and he that will not work shall not eat." The 
stern soldier's orders were obeyed, and at once there was a 
change for the better. To supply their immediate wants Smith 
led an expedition to the most important village of the Indian 
chief Powhatan, and by force obtained a supply of corn from the 
Indians. The savages regarded the bold captain with fear and 
admiration, and as long as he remained in Virginia gave but 
little trouble.^ But for Captain John Smith the Jamestown 

1 In his '• General! Historie of Virginia" Captain Smith relates that on one of his 
exploring exp>editions he \Yas taken prisoner by the Indians and sentenced to death, 
but that his Ufe was spared through the entreaties of Powhatan's little daughter, 
Pocahontas. This same Indian maiden was afterward married to John Rolfe, one of 
the settlers. Rolfe and his bride visited England, where " Lady Rebecca," as Poca- 
hontas was called, was received with honor at the court, and her beautv much admired. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



59 



colony would in all probability have perished, and the history 
of English settlement in America would have been changed. 

87. The Indians.— Powhatan was the great chief of the Vir- 
ginia tribes east of the mountains. The influence of John Smith, 
and the marriage of the old chief's daughter, Pocahontas, to 
Rolfe, made Powhatan the firm friend of the whites, and during 
his lifetime the savages were at peace with the settlers. Under 
Powhatan's successor, Opechancanough, two plots were formed 
to destroy the colonists by attacking all their settlements at the 
same time. The first plot was carried out in 1622, when over 
three hundred defenseless whites were murdered. The settlers 
hastily assembled, attacked the savages furiously, hunted them 
as if they were wild beasts, and drove them far to the frontier. 
The second massacre came twenty years later. Governor 
Berkeley raised a troop of horsemen, routed the Indians and 
captured Opechancanough. The old 
chief was nearly blind from age, and 
so infirm that he had to be carried on 
a litter. Yet his mind was vigorous 
and his spirit unbroken. The governor 
expected to send the captive chief to 
England, but he was murdered by one 
of his guards. After this Virginia had 
little to fear from Indian attacks. 

88. Tobacco Culture. — We have 
seen how the Indian custom of smok- 
ing tobacco excited the wonder of the 
first English explorers of America (§61, 
footnote). Sir Walter Raleigh made 
the practice fashionable at the Ens:- 

^ ^ Tobacco Plants. 

lish court, and it soon became general 

throughout England. The soil and climate of Great Britain 

were not suited to the growth of the plant, so the fashionable 




60 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

English smokers had to depend upon the uncertain crops 
of the Indians for a supply for their pipes. (Cigars were 
not known, and tobacco-chewing was rare.) Soon after the 
Jamestown colony was firmly established, John Rolfe began the 
systematic culture of tobacco. He succeeded so well, and 
found such a ready sale for his crop, that Governor Yeardley 
directed the general attention of the colonists to the production 
of the plant. Tobacco culture soon became the chief occupa- 
tion of the Virginians. Every year thousands of hogsheads of 
the valuable product were exported to England. All other oc- 
cupations were neglected, and the tobacco industry became an 
important element in the material, political, and social history 
of Virginia. 

89. The First Assembly and Constitution.— In the first five 
years of her existence Virginia had three different charters. 
The third charter abolished the London Council, and allowed the 
Company to govern their colony directly. A resolution was 
passed by the Company granting to the Virginians the right to 
choose for themselves a " General Assembly " to make their 
laws. Every freeman was allowed to vote, and two " burgesses " 
were elected from each "plantation," or settlement. The laws 
of the Assembly were to be approved by the London Company 
before they could be binding. The first Assembly consisted 
of twenty-two members. It met at Jamestown, 16 19, and was 
the first law-making Assembly chosen by the people that ever 
met in America. 

Two years later (162 1) the colonists were granted a written 
constitution, defining their rights and providing for regular 
meetings of the Assembly.-^ 

1 This first American constitution was the work of Sir Edwin Sandys, one of the I 

ablest friends of Virginia. He had been chosen treasurer of the company against ' 
the wishes of King James, who is said to have remarked, " Choose the devil if you 

will, but not Sir Edwin Sandys." , 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 6l 

90. Wives for the Settlers. — The wise heads in the 
London Company realized that their colony would never 
succeed as long as the settlers looked wistfully back to Eng- 
land as their home. So the plan was devised of sending out 
from England numbers of young women as wives for the 
Virginians, to make homes for them in the wilderness, and 
thus awaken in the men an interest in the prosperity and good 
government of the colony. The young women were to be of 
good character, and the cost of the passage of each (one 
hundred and twenty pounds of tobacco) was to be paid by the 
man who chose her as his wife. The damsels, too, were not 
to be " enforced to marry against their wills." This curious 
plan succeeded finely. When the first ship-load of ninety 
maidens arrived at Jamestown, a crowd of young men and old 
bachelors who were fortunate enough to have the required 
amount of tobacco, assembled to greet them. Courtships 
were made in short order. As soon as a man made satis- 
factory arrangements with a partner, he paid for her passage, 
and they were married at once. There was no trouble in find- 
ing husbands for all, and the ninety brides were so well 
pleased that they wrote back home and persuaded sixty more 
maidens to come over, and make sixty more lonely bachelors 
happy. 

91. The First Slaves. — The same year that marks the 
meeting of the first Assembly and the beginning of free gov- 
ernment in Virginia, was also the beginning of African slavery 
in this country. In 16 19 a Dutch vessel sailed up the James 
River and offered for sale to the planters twenty negroes 
captured on the coast of Africa. The slaves were bought and 
put to work on the tobacco plantations. Their labor was 
found profitable, and when others were brought over a ready 
sale was found for them. In a few years slaves were found in 
greater or less numbers in all the American colonies. 



62 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

92. Fall of the London Company. — King James did not 
like the spirit of liberty and opposition to royal power that 
was displayed in the great meetings of the London Company. 
He sent a committee to Virginia to inquire into the affairs of 
the colony. The Assembly refused to submit their records ; 
and when the king's commissioners bribed the clerk to sur- 
render them, the Assembly punished tlieir faithless servant by 
cutting off his ear. But, as everybody expected, the obstinate 
king carried his point. The charter was annulled, and the 
London Company, that had controlled the colony for seven- 
teen years and had laid the foundation of free government, 
was dissolved. Virginia became a royal colony and passed 
under the direct control of the king (1624^ 

93. The '*01d Dominion." — About the middle of the 
seventeenth century Oliver Cromwell led a revolution in Eng- 
land against the authority of the king. The armies of 
Charles L (the successor of James L) were beaten, and the 
king was tried and beheaded by his subjects. For eleven 
years England was under the rule of a "Lord Protector" 
instead of a king, while tlie late king's son, afterward 
Charles IL, was a wandering exile. During this period many 
of the king's followers fled to Virginia, among them John 
Washington, the great-grandfather of George Washington, and 
also the ancestors of Jefferson, Patrick Henry, the Lees. 
Randolphs, and other families afterward prominent in history. 
The sympathies of the Virginians were with the royalists, and 
these exiles were warmly welcomed. In one of her charters, 
Virginia was called " His Majesty's Ancient Colony and 
Dominion of Virginia." For this reason, and because of her 
loyalty to the exiled monarch, Virginia received the name of 
the ** Old Dominion." 

94. Bacon's Rebellion. — Though loyal to the King, the 
colonists jrrew more and more discontented with the oppressive 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 63 

laws of England and the misrule of the governors. During an 
Indian attack, Governor Berkeley ordered the troops that were 
ready to march against the savages to disband, — probably be- 
cause an Indian war would interfere with his profits from their 
trade. The people chose Nathaniel Bacon, a young and popular 
planter, as their leader, and without waiting for authority from 
the governor, they marched against the Indians and defeated 
them. In the meantime Berkeley declared Bacon and his 
men rebels. Bacon's party then met and signed an oath to 
resist the governor and any forces that might be sent over 
from England, until the king should be informed of the true 
state of affairs. Civil war followed between the adherents of 
Bacon and those of the governor. Bacon's party was suc- 
cessful, and the governor was driven out of Jamestown. A 
new Assembly met and passed a number of laws for the relief 
of the people. In the midst of his success, however. Bacon 
died of fever caused by exposure. No leader was found to 
take his place, and his party fell to pieces. Berkeley returned 
to Jamestown and, seizing the government, began to take 
vengeance upon those who had opposed him. King Charles 
II. finally removed him from office,^ remarking, " The old fool 
has taken away more lives in that miserable country than I 
have for the murder of my father." 

95. Settlement of the Valley. — The region between the 
Blue Ridge and the Alleghany, known as the "Valley of 
Virginia," was settled by a class of people different from the 
colonists on the banks of the James. The first wave of im- 
migration into this section came from Pennsylvania, and was 
composed of Germans and Scotch-Irish, who were attracted by 
reports of the fertility of the soil. Later, numbers of Scotch- 
Irish Presbyterians, seeking greater religious freedom, came 

1 For thirty-five years Berkeley had been a leading figure in Virginia history, 
having held the office of governor during the greater part of this time. 



64 * HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

from eastern Virginia to the upper valley, and many families 
were brought direct from Scotland and Ireland. The large 
tobacco plantations, so numerous east of the mountains, were 
not found in the valley ; so in their manner of life, as in their 
religion, the Virginians of this section differed from their 
Church-of-England neighbors beyond the mountains. 

96. Later History of the Colony. — By the close of the 
colonial period the struggling settlement on the banks of the 
James had grown to a prosperous colony of over half a million 
inhabitants. On account of the unhealthfulness of its site, 
Jamestown was abandoned, and Williamsburg became the 
capital. This town was founded on the spot where Bacon and 
his men had taken the oath to resist the king's troops. Its 
streets were planned in the form of a W and M, in honor of 
William and Mary. Here William and Mary College, the 
principal seat of learning in the Southern colonies, was located. 
Under Governor Spottswood, the pirates of Chesapeake Bay 
were routed, and their famous leader, " Blackbeard," was killed. 
Spottswood established the first iron furnace in Virginia, and 
did much to develop the resources of the colony. 

97. Summary. — Virginia, the oldest English colony, was founded at 
Jamestown in 1607, by the London Company, a mercantile body that 
wished to extend its trading operations by forming settlements in America. 
The charter obtained from King James I. provided a wretched form of 
government. Sickness, starvation, and quarrels brought the settlement to 
the verge of ruin. John Smith saved the colony from destruction. Young 
women were brought over from England as wives for the settlers. The 
importation of needy adventurers ceased, and a stream of immigration 
from the best classes of England flowed into the colony. The use of 
tobacco was learned from the Indians, and the culture of the plant became 
so profitable that it formed the universal occupation of the settlers. In 
the year 1619, the first colonial assembly met. In the same year the first 
African slaves were introduced. Seventeen years after the founding of 
Jamestown King James dissolved the London Company and made Virginia 
a royal colony. The misrule of Governor Berkeley led to the civil strife 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



65 



known as " Bacon's Rebellion," which was brought to a close by Bacon's 
death. Throughout the colonial period Virginia held a leading position 
among the English colonies. 



Maryland. 

98. Settlement. — Twenty-seven years after the settlement 
of Jamestown, two English ships sailed into Chesapeake Bay 
bearing men and supplies for the founding of a new colony 
north of the Potomac. 
They sailed up the 
broad bosom of the 
Potomac, entered a 
small tributary near its 
mouth, and landing, 
established their first 
settlement, which they 
called St. Mary's 
(1634). Land was 
purchased from the In- 
dians, together with 

part of the growing crops. The Indian women taught the 
settlers how to make '' hoe-cakes " of corn meal, and the In- 
dian men helped them to hunt the deer. A large proportion 
of the settlers were laboring men. More fortunate than its 
Virginia neighbors, the new colony escaped the perils of starva- 
tion and Indian massacres, and was soon firmly established. 

99. The Founders of Maryland. — These colonists were 
sent out from England by Cecil Calvert. George Calvert, the 
first Lord Baltimore, was a rich English nobleman and a 
member of the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholics were 
at that time persecuted in England, and George Calvert wished 
to found a refuge in America for his brethren. He first tried 
Newfoundland, but found the climate there too severe. He 




66 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



then went to Virginia with a number of followers. On his re- 
fusal to take the " Oath of Supremacy " (acknowledging the 
king of England as the head of the Church) the Virginians 
requested him to leave their colony. Returning to England, 
he obtained from his friend, King Charles I., a grant to that 
part of Virginia lying north of the Potomac. The new 

colony was to be called 
Maryland, in honor of Hen- 
rietta Maria, wife of the 
king. Just before his char- 
ter was issued Lord Balti- 
more died. His son, Cecil 
Calvert, the second Lord 
Baltimore, carried out his 
father's plans. 

100. The Government of 
the Colony. — The charter 
of Maryland contained a 
more complete grant of 
power than that of any 
other colony. The proprie- 
tor, as Lord Baltimore and his successors were called, was 
authorized to make all necessary laws, with the consent of the 
freemen ; and these laws were to be binding without the ap- 
proval of the English king or Council. The colonists were to 
be free from taxation by the crown, and were to enjoy all the 
rights of Englishmen. The king only asked, as a token of 
allegiance, two Indian arrows every year. 

loi. Territorial Disputes. — There was much dissatisfac- 
tion among the Virginians on account of the fact that the 
Maryland grant embraced territory included in their charter. 
William Clayborne, a member of the Virginia Council, had 
established a trading post on an island in Chesapeake Bay 




George Calvert, First Lord Baltimore. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 67 

within the disputed limits. When the Maryland authorities 
demanded that he should pay for a license to trade, he raised 
a body of troops and resisted. He was defeated, however, 
and his property seized. Clayborne fled to Virginia, and after- 
ward went to England to make his complaint to the king. The 
king, however, decided against him. 

After Pennsylvania was founded, a dispute arose between 
that colony and Maryland as to the boundary between them. 
The present line was finally agreed upon, and was called 
" Mason and Dixon's Line," from the two surveyors by whom 
it was laid off. 

102. Religious Troubles. — Though Maryland was founded 
as a refuge for oppressed Catholics, yet Christians of every de- 
nomination were welcomed. Her government was the first in 
the history of the world under which complete toleration was 
granted to Christians of every belief.^ During Cromwell's rule in 
England, the government of Maryland passed into the hands of 
Protestants. Sad to say, they began to persecute the Catholics, 
and civil war followed. The Protestants under Clayborne, who 
was now at the head of the Puritan party, were successful, and 
the Governor of Maryland was compelled to flee from the col- 
ony. After the death of Cromwell, Lord Baltimore's authority 
was again established and religious toleration was restored. 

103. Changes in the Government. — In 1692, King William 
annulled Lord Baltimore's charter, and for twenty-five years 
Maryland remained a royal colony under the control of govern- 
ors appointed by the king. The capital was moved from St. 
Mary's to Providence, afterward called Annapolis in honor of 
the queen. The fifth Lord Baltimore, having changed his 
religion, was recognized as Proprietor, and under his son the 

1 In 163S William Lews was fined one hundred pounds of tobacco for abusing 
Protestants, and forbidding his servants to read Protestant books. 



6S HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

old government was reestablished, and remained in force until 
the Revolution. 

104. Summary. — George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic 
nobleman, in order to found a refuge for his oppressed brethren, obtained 
from the King a grant to that part of the territory of Virginia h'ing north of 
the Potomac. The first settlement, St. Mary's, was founded in 1634. The 
charter was extremely liberal. All Christians were allowed equal rights. 
William Clayborne of Virginia, with a band of followers, resisted the 
authority of Maryland over a certain island in the Potomac. War followed 
between Clayborne's followers and the troops of the Governor. Clayborne 
was defeated and driven from the colony. Afterward he returned, put him- 
self at the head of the Protestant party, and compelled the Governor to 
flee. The Protestant rulers then treated the Catholics with great severity. 
Finally Calvert's authority was reestablished. King William annulled the 
charter and for twenty-five years Maryland was a royal colony. Then the 
fifth Lord Baltimore was recognized as proprietor and the old proprietary 
government was restored. 



North Carolina. 

105. Settlement. — The first attempts to plant an English 
settlement in the New World were on the coast of the present 
State of North Carolina (§ 67). After the failure of Sir Walter 
Raleigh's last colony, however, this region was for a long time 
abandoned. In 1629 Charles I. gave to Sir Robert Heath 
the vast territory between the present states of Virginia and 
Florida; but Heath made no attempt at settlement, and nothing 
came of the grant. Virginia claimed part of this region (§ 81), 
and her Assembly asserted authority over it by issuing grants 
of land to settlers and trading companies. A settlement of 
Virginians was formed on the shores of Albemarle Sound 
(1653). Ten years later some Englishmen from the West 
India Islands settled on the Cape Fear River. 

106. Colony Established. — In 1663, Charles II., ignoring 
the claims of Virginia, gave to the Earl of Clarendon, the Duke 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



69 



of Albemarle, and six other noblemen (including Governor 
Berkeley, of Virginia), as a reward for their faithfulness to him, 
the region formerly em- 



braced in Heath's patent. 
These proprietors estab- 
lished their authority over 
the settlements already 
formed, and proceeded to 
introduce other colonists. 
In Heath's patent, the 
name Carolina, given by 
the French to their fort 
on the coast (§55), was 




SETTLEMENT 
OF THE 
Augustine CAIIOLINAS 



applied to the entire territory, in honor of Charles I. of Eng- 
land. This name was retained by the new proprietors. 

107. The Charter. — The charter of Carolina, as of Mary- 
land, allowed great freedom of action to the proprietors. They 
could make any laws whatever, provided they were in accord- 
ance with the laws and customs of England. A most important 
provision, however, was that no laws could be passed without 
'' the advice, assent, and approbation of the freemen " or their 
delegates, who were to be assembled from time to time. 



108. The Fundamental Constitutions. — The noblemen who 
owned Carolina did not believe in giving much power to the 
common people. With the aid of the philosopher, John Locke, 
an elaborate plan of government, called the " Fundamental 
Constitutions," was prepared for the colony. By these Consti- 
tutions the eldest proprietor was made a sort of king of the 
province. The other proprietors were to be officers with high- 
sounding titles. There was to be a parliament elected by the 
people, but it could discuss only such measures as were pro- 
posed by the Grand Executive Council appointed by the pro- 



70 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

prietors. The inhabitants of the colony were to be divided 
into classes called barons, landgraves, caciques, and commons, 
and the commons were allowed no share in the government. 

109. Effect of Misgovernment. — From the first, the colo- 
nists regarded the Fundamental Constitutions as unsuitable 
and oppressive. They claimed that according to the charter 
their consent was necessary to any change of government. 
Yet for twenty-five years the proprietors vainly attempted to 
enforce their absurd plan upon the settlers. Moreover, the 
governors appointed by the proprietors were nearly all tyranni- 
cal and worthless men. The result of so much misrule was to 
give the people a contempt for all government, and to retard 
the growth of the colony. 

no. A Royal Colony. — For about seventy years North 
Carolina and South Carolina were considered one colony, 
although each had a separate governor and assembly. The 
proprietors, after a long struggle with their obstinate colo- 
nists, finally abandoned the Fundamental Constitutions and 
allowed the settlers to govern themselves according to the 
charter of Charles II. In 1729, the proprietors sold all their 
rights to the King, and North and South Carolina became royal 
provinces. 

Summary. See §116. 

South Carolina. 

III. Settlement. — In the southern part of the immense 
region known as Carolina, two rivers, the Ashley and the 
Cooper, flowing through a fertile and lovely district, unite 
their waters just before reaching the sea. On the western 
bank of the first named of these streams, two ship-loads of im- 
migrants, sent out from England by the Lords Proprietors of 
Carolina, landed and began to build their future homes (1670). 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 71 

The new settlement was named Charleston, in honor of the 
English king. A few years later it was removed to the strip 
of land between the Ashley and the Cooper rivers, the present 
site of the city of Charleston. 

112. The Settlers. — The first settlers of Charleston were 
a mixed population, including English, Irish, Scotch, French, 
and Germans. On account of religious persecution at home, 



Rice Harvest. 



large numbers of French Protestants, known as Huguenots, 
came to the colony. These were intelligent, orderly, indus- 
trious, and religious, — an excellent class of immigrants. 

113. Rice-Culture. — A sea captain returning from a voyage 
to Madagascar gave some rice seed to one of the colonists. 
The seed were planted, and the climate and soil proved to be 
admirably adapted to rice production. A machine for husking 
the seed having been invented, rice culture soon became a 
leading occupation of the people. 

114. Troubles with the Spaniards and the Indians. — The 

Spaniards at St. Augustine regarded the settlers of South 
Carolina as intruders upon their territory. In 1686 a com- 
bined force of Spaniards and Indians attacked and destroyed 
an English settlement at Port Royal. Some years later, the 
South Carolinians made an expedition against St. Augustine, 



72 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

in which they burned the town but failed to take the fort. 
Troubles with the Spaniards and their Indian allies continued 
until the new colony of Georgia was formed between South 
Carolina and the hostile Spaniards. 

115. Government of the Colony. — At first South Carolina 
was governed as part of Carolina. The " Fundamental Con- 
stitutions " met the same resistance from the southern colo- 
nists that it did from their northern neighbors. In 17 11, the 
people of South Carolina rose against the rule of the proprie- 
tors, and invited their governor to hold his office in behalf of 
the king. On his refusal, they chose one of their own number 
governor, and proceeded to control the government as a royal 
colony. The king approved their action. In 1729, North and 
South Carolina were finally separated, and both were declared 
royal provinces. 

116. Summary, the Carolinas. — In 1663, King Charles II. granted to 
the Earl of Clarendon, the Duke of Albemarle, and other noblemen the 
vast region lying between Virginia and Spanish Florida (including a part of 
what was then the territory of Virginia). A short time before this grant 
was made a few colonists from Virginia and some Englishmen from the 
West Indies had made settlements on Albemarle Sound and Cape Fear 
River. In 1670, Charleston was founded by settlers sent by the proprietors 
direct from England. The northern and southern parts of Carolina were 
allowed each a separate governor and Assembly. There was much misgov- 
ernment, especially in the northern colony. The introduction of rice-cul- 
ture added prosperity to South Carolina. The Spaniards and Indians of 
Florida were a source of danger to the southern colony until Georgia was 
founded. About seventy years after the first settlement, North Carolina 
and South Carolina were separated and both became royal colonies. 

Georgia. 

117. The Territory of Georgia was originally part of the 
Carolina grant. When South Carolina became a royal prov- 
ince, the Savannah River was made its southern boundary, the 
country between that stream and Spanish Florida being re- 



4 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



73 



tained by the king as "crown lands." George II. granted the 
region lying between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers to 
their sources, thence due west to the Pacific, to James Ogle- 
thorpe and a company of "trustees," who named their pro- 
posed colony Georgia in honor of the king. 

ii8. The Founders of Georgia. — At that time the English 
jails were full of people who were imprisoned because they 




^^^\j' 



could not pay their debts. James Oglethorpe was a brave soldier 
and member of parliament who was touched with pity for the 
sufferings of the debtors. He induced others to join him in 
raising a fund for transporting the better class of these debtors 
to America, where they would be able to make homes for them- 
selves and to begin life anew. So much interested was he in 
his unselfish enterprise, that he came to America himself, 
cheerfully gave his money, and bravely endured every danger 
in the interest of the colony, 

119. First Settlement. — Oglethorpe obtained his grant 
from the king in 1732 (the same year that Washington was 



74 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 




born). He came over with his colonists, and the next year 
founded the city of Savannah on a bluff overlooking the 
Savannah River. 

120. Growth and Government of the Colony. — Besides 
the English debtors large numbers of persecuted German Prot- 
estants came to Georgia. All laws were made by the trustees, 

and the colonists 
were allowed no 
share in the gov- 
ernment. Religi- 
ous toleration was 
ij;ranted to all save 
■ '^^'^^^^B^^ Roman Catholics. 

'^ V ,^, J^^^^^^^^ Slavery was prohib- 

ited and the impor- 
tation of rum for- 
bidden. However, 
the government of 
the trustees was 
unpopular, and in 
1752, Georgia 
became a royal 
colony. Oglethorpe was very successful in his dealings with 
the Indians. Tomochichi, a neighboring chief, like Powhatan 
in Virginia, and Massasoit in Massachusetts, was the firm 
friend of the whites. 

121. Preaching of the Wesleys and Whitefield. — The 

brothers John and Charles Wesley accompanied Oglethorpe to 
Georgia, the former as missionary of the English Church. For 
three years John Wesley faithfully ministered to the settlers 
and Indians, undergoing every hardship in his laborious mis- 
sion. Returning to England, he and his brother Charles be- 
came the founders of the Methodist Church. George Whitefield 




James Oglethorpe. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



75 



joined them, ani succeeded John Wesley as missionary to 
Georgia. Whitefield was a pulpit orator of wonderful power. 
His clear, musical voice could be heard distinctly by an audi- 
ence of twenty-five thousand people. He traveled through 
the colonies from Georgia to Massachusetts, preaching in the 
open air to vast crowds and exerting a powerful influence 
wherever he went. 

122. Troubles with the Spaniards. — The Spaniards of 
Florida constantly threatened the destruction of the Georgia 



35TH PARALLEL 




settlements. There were invasions and counter-invasions until 
the close of the French and Indian War (1763) when Spain 
gave up to England all Spanish territory south of the Altamaha 
River. The limits of the colony of Georgia were then extended 
to include the present states of Georgia, Alabama, and Missis- 
sippi. 

123. Summary. — Georgia, the youngest of the original thirteen colo- 
nies, was founded by James Oglethorpe as a refuge for the unfortunate 
debtor class of England. The territory of the colony lay between the 



76 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Savannah and Altamaha Rivers. In 1733 the first settlement was made at 
Savannah. The Wesleys and George Whitefield visited the colony and ex- 
erted a great influence by their preaching. Twenty years after the founding 
of Georgia, Oglethorpe's " trustees " surrendered their rights of govern- 
ment, and the colony passed under the immediate control of the king. 
There were occasional conflicts with the Spaniards on the south, until 
Florida was ceded by Spain to England. The territory of Georgia was then 
extended west and south to the Mississippi. 

124. Thought Questions. — Account for the gradual loss of promi- 
nence of the Spanish in American history. Why were the Swedes and 
Dutch so slow in attempting settlements t What points of superiority over 
all their competitors did the English possess in the struggle for possession 
of the continent ? In what sense was Raleigh the founder of Virginia .? 
What motive actuated the London Company in their colonization enter- 
prise } What rights were granted to the Virginians by this company .? 
What ideas resembling that of a " common store-house " are held in modern 
times ? Show that they are as foolish to-day as they ever were. What do 
you think of John Smith's rule that "he who will not work, shall not eat".? 
In what ways did the profitableness of tobacco culture influence Virginia 
history.? Was Bacon a rebel.? What do you think of the justice of his 
course ? Why were the *' Scotch-Irish " so called .? How did the Virginians 
regard the first settlers of Maryland .? What motives led to the founding of 
Maryland.? How did it happen that two colonies were formed in Carolina.? 
Compare the condition of debtors to-day with their condition 150 years ago. 
What resemblance is there between the circumstances of Oglethorpe's 
founding of Georgia and Baltimore's founding of Maryland ? What dif-. 
ference do you notice .? 

Fill out the following table for Southern colonies : 



Colony. 


First 
Settlement. 


Date. 


By Whom 
Founded. 


Religion of First 
Settlers. 


Motive of 
Founders. 


Virginia . . 
Maryland . . 
N. Carolina . 
S. Carolina . 
Georgia . . 


Jamestown 


1607 


London Co. 


Church of England 


Commercial gain. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 'J'] 



Topical Analysis (the Southern Colonies). 



A -ivT T^ t r A glance backward. 

79. A New Epoch. ^ . ° , , 

[A glance forward. 

80. Gosnold and Smith. -^ ^, ^ f °^^" 

[^ New plan. 

o -, ,. ^ . r Plymouth Company. 

81. Trading Companies. ^ ^, ^ ^ ^ 

y London Company. 

„ ,,, , f By Plymouth Company (failure). 

82. Settlements. \ J ^^ . ^ f 3\ / 

[^ By London Company (success). 

o , A ^ , . J r Condition. 

83. Jamestown Colonists. < ^ 

' [ Lxpectations. 

o T^- X ^i X r Numerous "Councils. 

84. First Charter. 



Public store-house. 
r Sickness. 

85. Settlement Abandoned. < Starvation. 

[ Lord Delaware's arrival. 

86. Services of John Smith. 

o «>, -r ,. r Pocahontas and Powhatan. 

87. The Indians, -i ^ , ^, , 

(^ Opechancanough s plots. 

88. Tobacco Culture. 

r Three charters. 

89. Government. ^ First Assembly. 

[ First Constitution. 

^ . , '' Homesickness of settlers. 

90. Permanency Assured, i r^ ,. , r 1 ^ 

I Peculiar plan of the Company. 

91. The First Slaves. 

J f His opposition to the London Company 

, . . <, Action of Virginia Assembly. 

Interference. \ ^ , , 

[ A royal colony. 



^ ,. , „ . ,. r Civil 
93. Royalist Emigration. S t^ •, , 



war in England. 
Exiles welcomed to Virginia. 
^ Origin. 

94. Bacon's Uprising, -l Strife. 

[ Result. 

95. Settlement of the Valley. 
Growth. 

96. Later History, -j Williamsburg. 
Gov. Spottswood. 



78 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



98. First Settlement. 

f George Calvert's object. 

99. Founders of the Colony. -! Attempts at colonization 

l^ Cecil Calvert. 

^1- «i- _x r Authority of the proprietors. 

100. The Charter, i -^^ . ., ^ ^ , • 

(^ Privileges of colonists. 



Id. Territorial Disputes. 



102. Religious Troubles. 



103. 



NORTH 
CAROLINA 



SOUTH 
CAROLINA 



GEORGIA. 



With Virginians. 

With Pennsylvania. 

Rule of Catholics. 

Rule of Protestants. 

[^ Civil war. 

^, . ^ ^ f Made royal colony. 

Changes in Government. < ^ . 

\^ Proprietary government restored. 

f Raleigh's attempts. 

105. Settlement. -| Albemarle Sound. 

[ Cape Fear River. 

f The proprietors. 

I The grant of territory. 

1^ The name. 

Authority of the proprietors. 

Rights of the colonists. 

Author. 

Provisions. 

C The Constitutions. 

Misgovernment. <! Conduct of Governors. 

1^ Result. 

, , „. , { Carolina divided. 

Later History. \ . . . 

1^ A royal colony. 

Location. 

Name. 

r By whom sent. 



106. Carolina. 



107. The Charter. 



108. Fundamental Constitutions 



109. 



■{ 



III. Settlement. 



114. 



Settlers. ^ ,,. , , ,. 

1^ Mixed population. 

Rice Culture. 

Contests with the Spanish in Florida. 

r Uprising of the colonists. 
\ A royal colony. 

Limits of the grant. 
Name. 
r The man, 
-j His object. 
[His self-sacrifice. 



115. Government. 
117. The Territory. 



118. The Founder. 



GEORGIA 

{continued). 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 79 

1 19. The First Settlement. 

« ,, <• ,, r The Indians. 
T 20. Growth of the ., ^ r ,1, t^ * 

^ Government 01 the Trustees. 

^* [^ A royal colony. 

121. Preaching of the Wesleys and Whitfield. 

122. Troubles with the J Invasions from Florida, 

Spaniards. \ Fla. surrendered to England. 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 

Massachusetts. 

Within the present limits of Massachusetts there were once 
two colonies, known as the Plymouth Colony and the Massa- 
chusetts Bay Colony. 

/. PLYMOUTH COLONY, 

125. Religious Classes in England. — At the beginning of 
the seventeenth century the people of England were divided 
according to religious belief into two great classes : the Roman 
Catholics^ who in times past had controlled the government, but 
now were comparatively few in number and were oppressed by 
unjust laws ; and the Protestants (so called originally because 
they protested against some of the beliefs and practices of the 
Catholics), who were now the ruling class. But the Protestants 
were themselves divided. The great majority of them, includ- 
ing most of the rich and the nobility, were members of the 
Church of England, whose ministers were appointed and sup- 
ported by the government. Among the Protestants, however, 
there were many who objected to certain forms and observ- 
ances of the English Church. Those who carried their 
opposition so far as to establish separate churches were 
called Separatists, while those who preferred to remain in 
the English Church but wished to see it changed in some 
forms and doctrines ("purified" as they said) were known 
as Puritans. 



8o 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Draw on blackboard 



CATHOLICS 
(few and 
oppressed). 



English 
People 



PROTES- 
TANTS 



Church of 
England (great 
majority of 
people). 



Dissenters 
(or 

Puritans) 



Puritans 
(or 

Conformists). 

Separatists 

(or 
Non-Con- 
formists) 



Presbyterians, 
Independents, 
Quakers, 



etc. 



126. The Founders of the Plymouth Colony. — In the next 
year after Jamestown was founded, a little congregation of 
Separatists, unwilling to give up their religious belief and un- 
able longer to endure the persecutions to which they were sub- 
jected, fled from England and sought a home in Holland 
(§ 71). Here they remained for a number of years un- 
disturbed. But they were still Englishmen, and it grieved 
them to see their children, by intermarriage with the Dutch, 
gradually forget their language and religion, and become ab- 
sorbed in a foreign nation. Their thoughts turned to America. 
In the wilds of the New World they hoped to find a refuge, 
where, free from alien influences, they could worship God as 
they chose. 

127. Difficulties in the Way. — These exiled Englishmen 
decided on the northern part of the vast region then called 
Virginia as the best place for their new home. But two great 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 8 1 

difficulties were in the way of the undertaking ; the permission 
of the English authorities to make a settlement in their Ameri- 
can possessions had to be secured, and means had to be pro- 
vided to pay the expenses of the enterprise. The London 
Company was favorable, but the king hesitated to promise 
them freedom of religion. At last they secured a "patent"^ 
from the Company with only the indirect assurance from the 
king " that he would connive at them and not molest them, 
provided they carried themselves peaceably." London mer- 
chants agreed to furnish the means, on condition that for seven 
years the proceeds of all labor should go to a common fund, 
and at the close of that period there should be an equal divi- 
sion of houses, lands, and goods between the merchants and 
colonists. 

128. The Voyage to America. — Under William Brewster, 
an elder of their church, a large part of this Separatist congre- 
gation set sail from Holland in a small ship called the Speed- 
well. They sailed first to England, where they found a larger 
vessel, the Mayflower, hired for their use. Here a number of 
friends joined them. The two ships started out on their west- 
ern voyage together, but the Speedwell was soon found to be 
too leaky to proceed, and returned to England. The May- 
flower continued on her course alone, and after a voyage of 
nine weeks, in November, 1620, came in sight of the shores of 
Cape Cod. 

129. Settlement of Plymouth. — The " Pilgrims," as these 
wanderers were called, intended to settle near the mouth of the 
Hudson, the northern limit of the London Company, but 

1 Plymouth, unlike her neighboring colonies, never had a charter from the King. 
Her attempts to secure one were defeated by religious opposition in England, and 
jealousy of adjoining colonies in America. The company called "the Governor and 
Council of Plymouth " had a charter giving them the powers of government. This 
company granted a " patent " to the colonists and their friends which allowed them 
only the rights to settle and trade. 



82 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Stormy weather and the opposition of the ship's crew forced 
them to make a landing on the coast which they first reached. 

Several weeks were spent in 
exploring the shores of Cape 
Cod Bay in search of a suitable 
place for settlement. Finally 
a small harbor, known on Cap- 
tain John Smith's map as Ply- 
mouth, was chosen. Here 
they found '' divers cornfields 
and little running brooks, a 
place very good for settle- 
ment." It was December 21, 
1620, when the landing was 
made and the settlement begun. 




130. Government. — Finding themselves outside the limits 
of the London Company, whose grant they held, the colonists, 
before landing, drew up and signed the following paper as a 
basis of their government : 

"fn tbe name of <!5ob, amen : i©c, tobofe namejtf are unber--ttjritten, tbe 
Io?an fubfcct? of our Drcab fotcrai0ne Horti, ftino fame? . . . batcino 
unbertahcn for pc olorie of *5ob anb abtancemcntc of )oe Cbriftian faitb, anb 
fjonour of our fljnjj anb countrie, a Vioiaage to ptant pc firft colonic m pc 
l^ortberne parts of l^iroinia, boc folcmnl)? anb mutual)? in pe prefcncc 
of <iBob anb one of anotbcr, covenant ♦ . . to cnacte, conftitute, anb frame 
fucb jufl anb cquaH iatoe? . . . ai^ fba« be tbouobt moft meete anb 
conbenient for pe generaH 000b of pe Colonie, unto tobicb ttje promife 
an bue fubmiffion anb obebience/^ 

John Carver was chosen governor for the first year. 



131. Early Years. — There were one hundred and two per- 
sons in the company that disembarked from the Mayflower. 
This number included eighteen men accompanied by their 



THE ENGLISPI COLONIES. 83 

wives, sixteen single men, twenty boys, eight girls, three maid- 
servants, and nineteen men-servants or hired workmen. They 
built log houses, using oiled paper for window-glass. The 
winter which soon set in was bitter cold, and half of the colo- 
nists died before it was over. Yet when the Mayflower sailed 
back to England in the spring, not one of the survivors re- 
turned. During the first four years the colonists often suffered 
from hunger, their chief dependence for food during this period 
being corn purchased from the Indians, together with clams 
and fish. 

132. Development of Plymouth Colony. — The next year 
after the settlement additional colonists arrived, and by 1630 
the number had increased to three hundred. . The first ship- 
load of immigrants brought a patent from the " President and 
Council of New England," — a new corporation that had taken 
the place of the old Plymouth Company. The plan of putting 
all earnings in a common stock proved as unsatisfactory here 
as it was in Virginia, and was soon abandoned. The London 
partners in the "patent," failing to receive the large profits 
they expected, sold out their shares to the colonists. Although 
they were still subject to the new Plymouth Company, they 
became, by this change, more independent of England than 
before, and were able to dictate what sort of immigrants should 
be admitted. Governor Carver having died the first winter, 
William Bradford was chosen governor. With the exception of 
five years when he declined to serve, Bradford was reelected 
every year until his death, thirty-six years later. 

133' Captain Standish and the Indians. — Learning of an 
Indian plot against the neighboring settlement of Weymouth, 
Captain Miles Standish with eight men was sent to investigate 
the matter. Standish was "a man of very little stature, yet of 
a very hot and angry temper." Finding himself one day in the 



84 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



same cabin with the hostile chief and several of his braves, he 
gave a signal to his men to close the door. Then snatching a 

knife from one of the 
Indians, a desperate 
conflict followed, in 
which the chief con- 
spirator and two other 
Indians in the room 
were killed, and one 
was taken prisoner. 
This bold act of Cap- 
tain Standish alarmed 
the savages and their 
plot was broken up. 
Afterward a treaty of peace was made with Massasoit, chief of 
the nearest Indian tribe, which lasted fifty-four years. 

134. Union with Massachusetts Bay Colony. — After a 
separate existence of seventy years, the Plymouth Colony, in 
1 69 1, was united to the neighboring more populous and wealthy 
colony of Massachusetts Bay. In the new charter the name 
Massachusetts was applied to the colonies thus united. 




The Miles Standish House, Duxbury, Mass. 



//. MASSACHUSETTS BAV COLONY. 

135. Settlement. — In 1628, six prominent English Puri- 
tans obtained from the Council for New England a grant of 
land extending from three miles north of the Merrimac to 
three miles south of the Charles. This "patent" embraced a 
strip of land about sixty miles wide, extending westward to 
the Pacific Ocean, which was then thought to be not much 
farther distant than the Hudson River. John Endicott, one 
of the six "patentees," with about one hundred colonists, 
made a settlement the same year at Salem, on the Massachu- 
setts coast. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



85 



136. The Charter. — The next year the proprietors of this 
grant obtained a charter from King Charles. The object of 
the leaders was to establish in America a refuge from the 
oppression to which 
the Puritans were 
subjected in Eng- 
land. Yet it was 
thought best to say 
nothing about reli- 
gion in the charter, 
and the enterprise 
was apparently for 
trading purposes. 
The stockholders 
were allowed to elect 
annually a governor, 
deputy-governor, 
and eighteen assistants. Endicott acted as first governor. 
Soon the entire company moved to Massachusetts, bringing 
their charter with them. This was a bold and popular move, 
as it gave the people in the colony as members of the company 
a right to govern themselves. 




137. Growth of the Colony. — New immigrants came in 
rapidly, and the colony of Massachusetts Bay soon surpassed 
its neighbor Plymouth both in wealth and population. Besides 
Salem, six other towns were established, of which Boston, 
founded in 1630 by Governor Winthrop, was the most impor- 
tant and became the seat of government. The colonists were 
originally Puritans, not Separatists, and as such adhered to the 
Church of England. But their independent position in civil 
matters and the influence of the Plymouth settlers led them to 
establish a separate church government. 



86 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



138. Religious Disturbances. — The settlers of Massachu- 
setts had braved the hardships and dangers of the New World 
in order to enjoy undisturbed their own religion. They made 
church membership a qualification for voting, and refused to 
allow members of any other faith than their own to gain a foot- 
hold in the colony. J^oger Williams, a talented young Separatist 
minister, gave them a good deal of trouble by his peculiar beliefs 
and the eloquence with which he advocated them. He opposed 

enforced attendance on 
church, and claimed that 
the government should not 
interfere with matters of 
religious belief. He was 
ordered to return to Eng- 
land, but fleeing south- 
ward he took refuge among 
the Indians and founded 
the colony of Rhode Is- 
land. 

Mrs. Anne Hutchinson 
delivered public lectures 
in the colony, in which 
she urged, among other doctrines, that not an upright life, 
but a direct inward revelation proved a person to be saved, 
and that any one "justified" and ''sanctified " was absolutely 
free from sin. Her teachings caused great excitement and 
gained many adherents. They were looked upon by the stern 
Puritans as dangerous to public morals, and she was banished 
from the colony.^ 

139. The First Slave Ship. — The first American slave ship 
was built at Marblehead, Massachusetts, in 1636. It was used 




The Church in which Roger Williams Preached in 
Salem. It is still standing. 



i Mrs. Hutchinson was kindly received in Rhode Island by Roger Williams 
Afterwards, having removed to New York, she was killed in an Indian massacre. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 8/ 

for transporting to this country slaves captured on the coast 
of Africa. Two years later this ship brought her first cargo of 
negro slaves into Massachusetts. This was the beginning of 
an extensive and profitable trade by which slaves were carried 
in New England ships to all the English colonies. 

140. Indian Troubles. — Massachusetts, in common with 
her sister colonies, was engaged in two bloody Indian wars, the 
Pequod War and King Philip's War. These are described 
later (§§ 156-160). 

141. The Witchcraft Craze. — The stern religious life of 
the Puritans and the intensity of their convictions led to a 
ready acceptance of the supernatural. In the latter part of 
the seventeenth century belief in witchcraft, which had long 
been accepted in the Old World, reached a climax of fanati- 
cism in New England, and hurried the people into deeds of 
cruelty and bloodshed. In 1684, Rev. Increase Mather pub- 
lished a book called "A Record of Illustrious Providences," 
containing an account of the cases of witchcraft that had al- 
ready occurred and describing the characteristics of the " devil- 
try " of the witches. A few years later the children of John 
Goodwin of Boston claimed to have been bewitched by an 
Irish servant-woman, against whom one of them had a spite. 
Among other symptoms, they barked like dogs, mewed like 
cats, and were struck dumb at the sight of the Shorter Cate- 
chism. The so-called witch was tried, convicted, and hanged. 
At Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692, a witchcraft craze seized the 
people. Twenty persons were executed as witches, hundreds 
were imprisoned, and a reign of terror prevailed. Rev. Increase 
Mather, then President of Harvard College, was a leading 
spirit in the prosecutions. He was heartily supported by the 
governor and highest judges of the colony. At last the people 
returned to their senses, and, after a few years had passed, 



8S HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Massachusetts appointed a fast-day for the " errors into which 
magistrates and people had been led by Satan and his instru- 
ments." 

142. Period of Oppression. — In 1678, the lawyers of King 
Charles II. declared that the charter of Massachusetts had been 
forfeited by the failure of her government to enforce the navi- 
gation laws of England. Petitions and remonstrances of the 
colonists were of no avail. A few years later (1684) the charter 
was declared to be null and void. The colony was left abso- 
lutely subject to the king, and the people were deprived of all 
political rights. King James II. appointed Edmund Andros 
governor of New England. This tyrant levied taxes on his 
own authority, and declared that all lands belonged to the 
crown ; the colonists could establish their title only by paying 
fees to the royal officials. This despotic government continued 
until the news of the overthrow of King James reached Massa- 
chusetts. The people then rose against their rulers, put Andros 
in jail, and reestablished their old government. 

143. Plymouth Joined to Massachusetts Bay. — As before 
related, the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were 
united in one colony in 1691. The province of Maine and 
the territory of Nova Scotia were included in the new colony, 
thenceforth known as Massachusetts. The new charter of 1692 
provided that the governor should be appointed by the king, 
and all acts of the legislature were to be sent to England for 
approval. The religious qualification for voters was no longer 
continued, but a property qualification was required. 

144. Summary. — A congregation of English Separatists, to escape 
persecution in their native land, fled to Holland. Dissatisfied there, they 
resolved to settle in America. They obtained a patent from the London 
Company, and sailing by way of Plymouth, England, landed in 1620 on the 
Massachusetts coast. They named their settlement Plymouth. Finding 
themselves outside the territory of the London Company, they obtained a 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



89 



patent from the Council for New England (successors to the Plymouth 
Company). John Carver was chosen as their first governor, and Miles 
Standish was their leader against the Indians. 

Eight years later John Endicott and other prominent English Puritans 
obtained from the Council for New England a grant of territory lying 
north of Plymouth. Settlements were made at Salem, Boston, and other 
places. Endicott obtained from the king a charter designating his colony 
the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and giving to himself and his associates 
the powers of government. The " stockholders " having all moved to Mas- 
sachusetts, the colony became a self-governing commonwealth. Roger 
Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson were banished on account of their religious 
teachings. Two Indian wars caused great loss of life and property. Dur- 
ing the " witchcraft craze " many innocent persons were imprisoned and 
put to death. In 1684 the king annulled the charter of Massachusetts Bay 
Colony, and for five years the people were under the despotic rule of Gov- 
ernor Andros. 

In 1 691 Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were united in one colony, 
known as Massachusetts. The population and wealth of Massachusetts 
gave her a preeminence among the Northern colonies corresponding to that 
of Virginia in the South. 



Watertown • •/(JliarlestowQ 



Connecticut. 

145. Settlement. — The Dutch settlers of New York and 
the Plymouth colonists both established trading posts on the 
Connecticut River 
at an early date ; 
but the real found- 
ers of the Connecti- 
cut colony came 
from Massachu- 
setts. In 1635 ]^^^ 
Winthrop, the 
younger, built Fort 
Saybrook at the 
mouth of the Connecticut River. The next year Hartford was 
founded by Thomas Hooker, a Puritan minister, who had 
marched through the woods from Massachusetts with his entire 




'J 



90 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



congregation. John Davenport, another minister, with a com- 
pany of immigrants, settled New Haven. 

146. Union of the Settlements. — Around the towns of 
Hartford and New Haven as centers, numerous settlements 
sprang up. For a while there were three colonies, Saybrook, 
Connecticut, and New Haven. In a few years these were re- 
duced to two by the union of the Saybrook and Connecticut 
colonies. The Connecticut colony was conspicuous for the 
liberal and democratic government established by its people. 
The New Haven colony was less tolerant in religious matters. 
After a separate existence of about thirty years the New Haven 
colony was absorbed by Connecticut. The three original col- 
onies were thus reduced to one. 

147. The Charter. — The charter of Connecticut, which 
was obtained through the efforts of Winthrop, gave a great 

deal of liberty to 
the people, allow- 
ing them to elect 
all their officers. 
Consequently they 
prized it highly, 
and when the Eng- 
lish government 
demanded the 
surrender of their 
charter, they put 
off compliance 
until Andros with 
a large escort 

The Charter Oak. ^^ . . 

came to Hartford 
to enforce the king's order. Andros held a conference in the 
evening with the governor and council of the colony. Tradition 
says that the lights in the room were suddenly extinguished, 




THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 9I 

and the charter was hidden in a hollow oak-tree. Andros, 
however, took control of affairs, and for a few years the charter 
government was overthrown. With the downfall of Andros 
(§ 162) the old charter (or a duplicate) was brought from its 
concealment, the government under it was reorganized, and 
continued in force until the Revolution. 

148. Summary. — The first settlers of Connecticut came from Massa- 
chusetts. Settlements were formed at Hartford by Thomas Hooker, and 
at New Haven by John Davenport. For a time three colonies existed, the 
Connecticut colony, the New Haven colony, and the Saybrook colony. 
Finally these were combined into the Connecticut colony. The charter of 
Connecticut was liberal in its provisions, and was much prized by the peo- 
ple. During the period of Andros's rule over New England the charter 
gevernment of Connecticut was overthrown, but was restored with the 
downfall of James II. 

Rhode Island. 

149. Settlement. — When Roger Williams was driven from 
Massachusetts (§ 138), he fled southward through the woods, 
and with a few followers established a settlement which he 
called Providence at the head of Narragansett Bay (1636). 
The following year a party of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson's follow- 
ers made a settlement on an island in the bay, afterward known 
as Rhode Island. These settlements and others near them 
were subsequently united under the name of "The Colony of 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." 

150. Government. — Roger Williams declared that in his 
colony no one should ever be disturbed on account of his reli- 
gious belief. The settlers were chiefly refugees from other 
colonies. They were independent thinkers in politics as well 
as in religion, and they did not get along peaceably together. 
For twenty-seven years there were quarrels between the differ- 
ent settlements with only a weak government over them. 
Finally a charter was secured which united the different settle- 



92 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



ments, granted entire religious freedom, and allowed the people 
to elect their own officers. 

151. Separate Position. — Rhode Island was the first col- 
ony to establish the great principle of complete religious free- 
dom.^ Because of her independent position in religion, as 
well as on account of her unsettled government, Rhode Island 
was viewed with suspicion and dislike by the other New Eng- 
land colonies, and was not allowed to join the New England 
Confederation (§ 157). 

152. Summary. — Rhode Island was founded by Roger Williams, who, 
when banished from Massachusetts, established the first settlement at 
Providence in 1636. The next year a party of Mrs. Hutchinson's followers 
settled " Rhode Island," in Narragansett Bay. Roger Williams enforced 
the great principle of religious freedom, and his colony became a refuge for 
the oppressed. The government of Rhode Island was at first turbulent 
and unsettled. Finally a charter was obtained uniting the different settle- 
ments. After this better order prevailed. 



New Hampshire. 

153. Some of those who suffered from religious persecution 
in the older New England colonies, went to New Hampshire, 
where settlements had been made as 
early as 1623. The population in this 
colony increased very slowly, owing to 
confusion in land titles and disputes 
about government. It was too weak for 
independence and was several times 
united to Massachusetts ; it finally be- 
came a separate colony in 17 41. New 
Hampshire had no charter, but was 
subject directly to the king. Vermont 
was claimed as part of her territory. 

1 Maryland gave equal freedom to all Christians. 




THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 93 

154. Summary. — New Hampshire was settled by immigrants from 
other New England colonies. Its growth was slow. In 1741 it became a 
separate colony, subject directly to the king. 



New England as a Whole. 

155. Close Relation of the Colonies. — The region em- 
braced by the colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode 
Island, and New Hampshire was first called " New England " 
by Captain John Smith, on a map of his explorations. The 
" Council for New England," to whom the land was granted in 
1620, adopted the name in their title. The early history of 
these colonies is in many respects similar. We have seen that 
Massachusetts was the parent colony of all the others. The 
character, occupation, and religion of the settlers, their mode 
of local government, their dangers, and their interests, were 
much the same. 

The following topics relate to events which to some extent 
affected all these colonies. 

156. The Pequod War. — The Pequods, one of the strongest 
and fiercest Indian tribes of New England, came in conflict 
with the settlers in the Connecticut valley, soon after the first 
settlements were made in that region. They tried to get the 
help of the powerful Narragansetts of Rhode Island, but 
through the influence of Roger Williams, the Narragansetts 
refused aid. The weak Connecticut people, in their distress, 
appealed to Massachusetts. A little army of five hundred men 
was raised by the two colonies. Under Captain John Mason, 
they attacked the leading Pequod village on the Mystic River 
in Connecticut. The Indians were completely routed, and 
seven hundred, including women and children, were slain, and 
two hundred taken prisoners. The captives were sold as slaves, 
and the great tribe of Pequods was extinguished. 



94 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

157. The New England Confederation. — The Pequod War 
taught the colonies the advantage of union in time of danger. 
In 1643, Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New 
Haven determined upon a permanent Confederation to be 
known as "The United Colonies of New England."^ The 
object of the Confederation was to gain better protection 
against foreign and domestic enemies. Each colony was left 
perfectly free to manage its own internal affairs, while exter- 
nal matters pertaining to the good of all were entrusted to 
eight commissioners, two chosen by each colony. This is im- 
portant as the first confederation of British colonies in Amer- 
ica. It lasted more than forty years. Besides affording pro- 
tection against the Indians it brought the New England colo- 
nies into closer sympathy with each other, and showed the 
other colonies the advantages of union. 

158. King Philip's War ; Cause. — On the death of Mas- 
sasoit, who for so many years had been a friend of the whites, 
his eldest son, Alexander, became chief of the tribe of Wam- 
panoags, who lived near the head of Narragansett Bay. As 
Alexander was suspected of plotting against the settlers, a 
company of men from Plymouth sunorised him in his hunting 
lodge, and took him prisoner. This insult made the proud 
Indian furious. He was seized with a dangerous fever, from 
which he died soon after his release from captivity. His 
brother, Philip, succeeded him as chief. Philip possessed 
unusual ability and wielded a great influence over the New 
England tribes. He hated the whites and awaited an occasion 
for an outbreak. When three Indians of his tribe were accused 
of murder, found guilty, and put to death by the colonists, 
Philip called his warriors to arms, and a bloody war began 

(1675)- 

1 For exclusion of Rhode Island see paragraph 150. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



95 



159. Battles and Massacres. — One Sunday as the people of 
the village of Swanzey in the Plymouth colony were returning 
from church, they were attacked by the savages and a number 
of them were killed. Troops were sent from Massachusetts to 
aid the Plymouth peo- 
ple. The Indians were 
attacked and beaten, 
but escaped from place 
to place. Philip now 
drew to his support 
nearly all the New 




Indians attacking a Settlement. 



England tribes and the war spread into all the colonies. 
According to a secret plot, a number of different settlements 
were attacked at the same day and hour. Hadley, Massa- 
chusetts, was surprised while the people were at church. In 
the fight that followed it is said that a strange man with long 
beard rushed to the front, rallied the hard-pressed colonists, 
and led them to victory. This was Goffe, the " regicide," one 
of the judges who condemned King Charles I. to death (§93), 



96 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

and who, having fled to America, was living in concealment 
among the Puritans of Massachusetts. In a Rhode Island 
swamp a severe battle was fought with the Narragansetts, in 
which the savages were completely defeated. Philip's allies 
began to desert him. His wife and little son were captured. 
" My heart breaks ! " he cried, " I am ready to die." He was 
at last shot by a faithless Indian. By his death, the power of 
the Indians was broken. 

160. Results of King Philip^s War. — King Philip's War 
was the severest blow the New England colonies suffered. 
The struggle lasted two years, and while it resulted in the com- 
plete overthrow of the Indians, yet it was long afterward be- 
fore the colonies recovered from the losses which it caused. 
Over six hundred men were killed. Thirteen towns were 
destroyed, six hundred houses were burned, half a million 
dollars worth of property was destroyed, and a heavy debt 
was contracted, requiring the taxes to be greatly increased. 

161. The Great Revival. — A reaction against the stern 
theology of the early days began in New England during 
the early part of the eighteenth century, and there was much 
looseness of religious belief and conduct. Then followed a 
period of intense religious excitement, known as the "Great 
Awakening." Beginning in the church of Jonathan Edwards, 
in Massachusetts, the revival reached its highest point in 1740, 
under the preaching of George Whitefield. There were conver- 
sions in nearly every town in New England. Many, however, 
objected to the great excitement that accompanied the revival. 
Controversies followed, and a division in the churches was the 
result. There was much difference of opinion as to the general 
good effect of the revival. It certainly exerted a great influ- 
ence upon subsequent religious thought in New England. 

162. New England under One Governor. — King James II. 
made Sir Edmund Andros (§ 142) governor of the New England 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



97 



colonies, afterward adding New York and New Jersey to his 
jurisdiction. The charters were either taken away or declared 
annulled, and Andros ruled in a most despotic manner. When 
the people of England banished King James, the New Eng- 
land colonists immediately followed their example by deposing 
Governor Andros. The colonies were then allowed to resume 
their old forms of government. 

163. Summary. — A close relation existed among the New England 
colonies. Important events that affected one, affected all. The war with 
the Pequod Indians originated in Connecticut. Massachusetts came to the 
aid of her sister colony and the savages were completely routed. The New 
England Confederation, formed for mutual defense against the Indians, in- 
cluded all the New England colonies except Rhode Island and lasted forty 
years. King Philip's War began in Massachusetts. There were numerous 
battles and massacres, resulting in great loss to the colonists. At last 
Philip was killed, and the power of the Indians overthrown. Under the 
preaching of Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, there was a memora- 
ble religious awakening in New England. King James II. placed all the 
New England colonies under one governor. When King James was 
banished by his subjects, the old colonial governments were restored. 

164. Thought Questions. — Is there any persecution on account of 
religion in the United States to-day.^ Do you know of any religious 
intolerance ? What circumstances of their history make the intolerance of 
the colonists seem inexcusable ? What explanation can you offer for their 
conduct in this respect ? Compare John Smith and Miles Standish ? Why 
did the Plymouth Colony have a patent instead of a charter? Why did 
Massachusetts Bay Colony outstrip Plymouth ? How was slavery regarded 
250 years ago? Does slavery exist anywhere to-day? Why did Con- 
necticut prize her charter so highly ? What colonies may be considered 
off-shoots of Massachusetts ? Fill out the following table : 



Colony. 


First 
Settlement. 


Date. 


By Whom 
Founded. 


Religion 
of First 
Settlers. 


Motive of 
Founders. 


Mass 

Connecticut . . 
Rhode Island . 
New Hampshire 


i Plymouth 
1 Salem 


1620 
1628 


Brewster and others 
Endicott and others 


Separatist ) 
Puritan j 


Religious freedom. 



98 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Topical Analysis (New England Colonies). 



126. Founders of 
Plymouth. 



f Their religion. 
-<J Flight from England. 



127. 

128. 
129. 



The Voyage. 



130. Government. 



131- 



132. 

^33- 
134- 

135- 



136. 



137- 
13S. 

139- 
140. 



(^ Dissatisfaction with their new home. 

Looking toward f Authority to form settlement. 

America. \ Means for the voyage. 

The ships. 

First land seen. 

^ ,,, , r Failure to reach destination. 

Settlement. ^ ^ ,. a .^^ 

[^ Landmg and settlement. 

f Agreement signed. 

\ First governor. 

_ , . , f Classification. 
First Colonists, i ^ a • 

I Sufferings. 

• f New immigrants. 

Growth of Colony. <j New patent. 

(^ London stockholders. 

Capt. Standish : Successful dealings with Indians. 

Union with Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

f Founders. 

The Beginning. <j Patent. 

(^ Settlement. 

f Purpose of founders. 

Government. ^ Charter. 

[^ Removal of stockholders to America. 

f New settlements. 
Growth of Colony. 



Church government. 

f Roger Williams. 
Religious Disturbances. < ^, tj * u- 

^ 1^ Mrs. Hutchmson. 

First Slave Ship. 

Indian Wars. 

[' Belief in witches. 

Increase Mather's book. 



141. Witchcraft. ^ 

I 



Persecutions. 



l^ Repentance of the people. 

f Charter annulled. 

142. Period of Oppression. | ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ 

f Territorial limits. 

143. Union with Plymouth. < ^^^ ^^^^^^^_ 



CONNECTICUT. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 99 

C Dutch trading posts. 

145. Settlement. -^ Saybrook, Hartford and New 

(^ Haven. 

146. Union of Settlements. 

r Its liberal nature. 

147. The Charter. -^ Demand for its surrender. 

[ The Andros government. 



RHODE ISLAND. 



oi.il J. ( Providence. 

:49. Settlement. | ^^^^^ ,^j^_^^ 



f Roger Williams' views. 

150. Government, -j Disturbances. 
(^ Charter. 

151. Relations with other New England Colonies. 

C Settlement. 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. iS3-<{ Growth. 

[^ Separate Colony. 

Name, " New England." 

1 ^^. A.ciciiiuu yjL LUC v/v;iuuics. \ 
O 

a 



155. Relation of the Colonies. , ^ 

1^ Common interests. 

f Attack on Connecticut settlers. 

1 56. Pequod War. -<! Position of the Narragansetts. 

[ Overthrow of Indians. 
f Object. 

157. New England Confederation. <| Management. 

[ Importance. 
f Cause. 

158. 159, 160. King Phillip's War. ^ Battles and massacres. 

[ Results. 
f Origin. 

161. The Great Revival. -^ Climax. 

[ Results. 

^ ^1. 4 3 /> X r N. E. under one governor. 

162. The Andros Government, i ^,, 

Old governments restored. 



the middle colonies. 

New York. 

165. Settlement. — All the colonies thus far considered were 
settled by people of English birth. New York, however, owes 
its settlement fo Uig Dutch. By virtue of Henry Hudson's dis- 



lOO 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



covery, the Dutch claimed the Hudson River valley, together 
with the entire region between the Delaware Bay and Cape 
Cod, which they called New Netherland. At first, trade was 
the sole object of the Dutch, and no attempt at settlement was 
made, though " trading posts " were established on the banks 
of the Hudson and on Manhattan Island. The Dutch West 
India Company obtained control of New Netherland, its 
charter bidding it "to advance the peopling of those fruitful 




New York in 1656. 



and unsettled parts." In 1623 this corporation established 
settlements at Fort Orange (Albany) and at New Amsterdam 
(New York). 

166. The Patroons. — To encourage immigration vast tracts 
of land were given to any member of the West India Company 
who should introduce a colony of fifty persons. The owners 
of the immense landed estates thus formed were called "pa- 
troons." They exercised almost absolute power over their 
tenants, and their domains were like little independent states. 
When the Dutch lost New York the rule of the patroons was 
overthrown, yet for nearly two hundred years the heirs of the 
old patroons continued to collect rents from the occupants of 
the lands. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



lOI 



167. Dutch Government. — The Dutch 
were usually mild in their treatment of the 
Indians, and were very successful in trading 
with them. All of Manhattan Island where 
New York City now stands was purchased 
for trinkets worth about twenty-four dollars. 
Like Virginia, in her early history, New 
Netherland was governed by a trading cor- 
poration. The governors of the colony, 
appointed by the Dutch West India Com- 
pany, were all more or less incompetent 
and tyrannical. Peter Stuyvesant, the last 
of the four Dutch governors, was honest 
and energetic, but high-tempered and im- 
perious.-^ He was frequently engaged in 
quarrels with the settlers of Connecticut. 
At the head of a small army, he marched 
against the Swedish settlers on the Dela- 
ware, and compelled them to submit to 
Dutch authority. 

168. Fall of the Dutch Power. — Eng- 
land claimed New Netherland on the basis 
of Cabot's discoveries, and she was un- 
willing that the Dutch should possess the 
land and thus separate her New England 
and Southern colonies. In 1664, an Eng- 
lish fleet was sent against New Amsterdam. 
The town was unprepared for defense, and 

1 An Assembly was chosen without Stuyvesant's ap- 
proval. It met and issued an address to the governor, 
asking that the people be allowed a larger share in the 
government. The haughty Stuyvesant replied : " We 
derive our authority from God and the West India Com- 
pany, not from the pleasure of a few ignorant subjects," 
and refused to grant the request. 



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M^%ew Yatit-CityJ 


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102 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the citizens were tired of the tyranny of their governors ; so 
in spite of Governor Stuyvesant, who raged and swore at his 
people for refusing to make any resistance, New Amsterdam 
and all New Netherland were surrendered to the English. The 
entire region was presented by the king of England to his 
brother, the Duke of York. In honor of the new proprietor, 
the name New York took the place of the Dutch names for 
the colony and its chief town. After nine years of English 
rule a Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor and compelled New 
York to surrender. For one year the Dutch rule was restored. 
Then a treaty was made between Holland and England by 
which New Netherland was finally transferred to the English. 

169. English Rule. — New York continued to suffer much 
from bad governors. When the Duke of York became king 
of England (James II.), he appointed Sir Edmund Andros 
governor of all New England and New York. (§ 162.) The 
rule of Andros was unpopular with the people. When the 
news of the downfall of King James was received, the deputy 
governor of New York abandoned his post and fled to 
England.^ The colonists of New York, like their New Eng- 
land neighbors, then took control of the government. Cap- 
tain Jacob Leisler acted as governor until the king's wishes 
could be known. On the arrival of a new governor from Eng- 
land, Leisler was tried for treason, and was convicted. Gov- 
ernor Slaughter, while drunk at a dinner party, was induced 
by the enemies of Leisler to sign his death-warrant. New York 
remained a Royal province until the Revolution. 

170. Summary. — By virtue of Henry Hudson's explorations the Dutch 
claimed the territory from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod, and called it New 
Netherland. They soon began a brisk fur-trade with the Indians, and for 
this purpose established trading posts on Manhattan Island and on the 
upper Hudson. The Dutch West India Company obtained a grant to the 

1 Andros himself was then in Boston. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



103 



New Netherlands, with authority to form settlements, direct the govern- 
ment, and control the trade of the settlers. Under the mild rule of the 
Dutch many emigrants from neighboring English colonies and from various 
European countries were attracted to the colony. Governor Stuyvesant 
conquered the Swedes on the Delaware, and brought them under Dutch 
authority. England, claiming New Netherland on the basis of Cabot's 
discoveries, sent a fleet against New Amsterdam, 1664, and the town and 
all New Netherland surrendered to the English. The entire region was 
presented by Charles II. to his brother, the Duke of York, in whose honor 
the name of New York took the place of the Dutch names for the colony 
and chief town. Nine years later New York was recovered by the Dutch, 
to be held by them only one year, when it was finally transferred to the 
English. James II. appointed Andros governor of all New England, New 
York, and New Jersey. When the news of the downfall of King James 
came, the Andros government was overthrown, and the colonists of New 
York took control of affairs with Jacob Leisler acting as temporary gover- 
nor. On the arrival of the new king's governor, Leisler was tried for 
treason and executed. New York remained a Royal province until the 
Revolution. 

New Jersey. 

171. Settlement. — The lands between the Delaware and 
the Hudson had been claimed by the Dutch, the Swedes, and 
the English. This country was a por- 
tion of the grant made to the Duke of 
York in 1664, and he gave it to Lord 
Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Car- 
teret had been governor of the Island 
of Jersey off the coast of England, so 
the grant was called New Jersey in his 
honor. Under a nephew of Sir George 
Carteret as governor, a settlement was 
made at Elizabethtown in 1665. 

172. The Colony Divided. — Dis- 
putes soon arose between the proprie- 
tors and the inhabitants, and Berkeley, dissatisfied, sold his inter- 
est to William Penn and other Quakers. A division was then 



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104 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

made into East and West Jersey. The eastern portion was 
given to Carteret, while the western portion was left to the 
Quakers. After the death of Carteret, Penn and his associ- 
ates bought East Jersey, and the Quakers established a liberal 
government there like that in their western colony. 

173. East and West Jersey United. — King James II. took 
away from the proprietors of both colonies the rights of govern- 
ment, on the ground that the inhabitants were guilty of smug- 
gling. The disgusted proprietors soon afterward surrendered 
all their claims to the crown. East and West Jersey were then 
(1702) united as a royal colony. Although considered a sep- 
arate colony, New Jersey was not allowed a governor of its 
own until 1738. During this period the colony was under the 
administration of the governor of New York, who ruled through 
a deputy. 

174. Summary. — The territory between the Delaware and the Hudson 
was a portion of the grant made to the Duke of York in 1664, and he gave 
it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. A settlement was made at 
Elizabethtown, 1665. Berkeley sold his interests to a party of Quakers. A 
division was then made into East and West Jersey, the eastern portion 
given to Carteret and the western to the Quakers. Penn and his associates 
bought East Jersey also, and the Quakers then controlled both colonies. 
James II. took away from the proprietors of both colonies the rights of 
government. They soon after surrendered all their claims to the crown, 
and East and West Jersey were united as a Royal colony (1702). Still, for 
thirty-six years New Jersey was not allowed a governor of its own, but was 
under the governor of New York, who ruled through a deputy. 



Pennsylvania. 

175. The Quakers. — Among the persecuted sects of Eng- 
land during the seventeenth century, none were more harshly 
treated than the Quakers. These people believed that the 
teachings of Christ should be followed literally in all things ; 
hence they refused to swear, even in a court of justice, nor 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



105 



could they be induced to fight under any circumstances. In 
conversation they used the terms "thee" and "thou." Con- 
sidering all men absolutely equal, they declined to take off 
their hats as a mark of respect. They believed that all forms, 
ceremonies, and written creeds should be avoided. They op- 
posed dancing, theaters, and all public shows. They objected 
to a paid ministry, 
and held that any 
one might preach 
"when the spirit 
moved him." 

176. The Founder 
of Pennsylvania. — 
William Penn was a 
wealthy Quaker who 
desired to find a re- 
fuge in America for 
his oppressed breth- 
ren. The king owed 
Penn's father a large 
sum of money. He 
agreed to give young 
Penn forty thousand 
square miles west of 
the Delaware for the 
debt. The grant was called Pennsylvania (Penn's woods). 

177. Settlement. — In 1681 Penn's first colonists were 
brought over. The next year Penn himself joined them, and 
founded the capital city on the west bank of the Delaware. 
He called it Philadelphia (brotherly love), after a city men- 
tioned in the New Testament. 

178. Growth of the Colony. — The growth of Pennsylvania 
was rapid. The colony was well governed from the first ; no 




William Penn. 




Penn's Slate-Roof House. 



1 06 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

religious persecution was allowed ; the Indians were fairly 
treated, and "emained on good terms with the settlers. Thou- 

sands of English 
Quakers flocked to 
the colony, likewise 
large numbers of 
Irish and German 
immigrants. Before 
the beginning of the 
Revolution Philadel- 
phia was the largest 
town in all the col- 
onies. Penn and his heirs continued to govern the colony 
until the close of the colonial period. 

179. Summary. — The king of England gave William Penn, a wealthy 
Quaker, forty thousand square miles west of the Delaware in payment of a 
debt which he owed Penn's father. The grant was called Pennsylvania. In 
1 68 1 the first colonists were brought over, and Philadelphia was founded. 
The colony was well governed ; no religious persecution was allowed ; the 
Indians were fairly treated, and large numbers of Quakers, and Irish and 
German immigrants flocked to the colony. Penn's heirs continued to 
govern the colony until the close of the Colonial period. 

Delaware. 

180. Settlement. — Soon after the founding of New Am- 
sterdam, the Dutch made a settlement in Delaware, which was 
destroyed by the Indians a few years later. The first perma- 
nent settlement was made by the Swedes at Wilmington in 
1638. 

181. Conflicting Claims. — The territory was in turn under 
the control of the Swedes, the Dutch, and the English. When 
the English authority was established, Delaware, along with 
New Jersey and New York, was granted to the Duke of York. 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



107 



The duke transferred the territory of Delaware to WiUiam Penn, 
who wanted an outlet to the sea for his colony. Delaware 
then became a part of Pennsylvania. 

182. A Separate Province. — Her 

people were not satisfied with the union, 
however, and Penn finally allowed them 
a separate Assembly. In 1703 Dela- 
ware was recognized as a separate pro- 
vince, although she still remained under 
the same governor as Pennsylvania. 

183. Summary. — The first permanent set- 
tlement was made by the Swedes in 1638. The 
territory was in turn under the control of the 
Swedes, the Dutch, and the English. Dela- 
ware was a portion of the grant made by King Charles II. to the Duke of 
York, It was transferred to William Penn, and became a part of Pennsyl- 
vania. The people of Delaware were not satisfied with the union, and Penn 
allowed them a separate Assembly. In 1703 Delaware was recognized as a 
separate province, but remained under the same governor as Pennsylvania. 

184. Thought Questions. — What made the situation of New Amster- 
dam favorable for trade ? What two colonies owed their first settlements 
to great trading companies? What colonies were governed by a trading 
company though not settled by it ? Account for the early downfall of the 
Swedish power in America. Of the Dutch. What sects were not guilty 
of religious persecution in colonial times ? In what colonies do you find 
intolerance in religion? What colonies were settled by persecuted classes ? 
What colonies were originally gifts of territory to friends of the king? 
Copy and fill out the following table : 




Colony. 


First 

Settlement. 


Date. 


By Whom 
Founded. 


Religion 

Settlers. 


Motive of 
Founder. 


New York . 
New Jersey . 
Pennsylvania 
Delaware . . 


New Amsterdam 


1623 


Dutch West India Co. 


f Dutch 1 
\ Protestants j 


Trade 



Combine in one the tables in §§ 124, 164, and 1S4. 



io8 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



i 


in 

CI 


s 


If) 


§ 




















■ 


MAR 


Y L A 


N D 


















V 1 


R G 


1 N 


1 A 
















S 


C A:R^O^ 


LI N A 


N, C. 


1 




s. c 










[GEORGIA 




m 


P L Y, 


M U T 


H 


ASSACH [ 


JSETTS 










i M A 


S S. BAY 
















■\- 


R. H 


D £ IS 


LAND 














S\^ BROOK 


Pi 


N N E 


C T 1 C 


U T 




-4:eoN,N. 






— -{Miew 


HAVEN ' 






















N E W 


H A M P 


SHIR 


E 




















,, 


N E 


W Y 


R K 














[ 


1 




(^ ^^.EA 






E R S E Y 


Imm^f^ 


ST JERSEY 1 


r N E W J 














PEN 


N SY L V 


AN 1 A 














t 


D E 


L A W. 


ARE 






- 













Synchronal Chart of the Colonies. 



Questions on Chart of Colonies. — Copy this chart on blackboard or on 
paper. In the space representing Virginia, place a cross-mark to indicate 
relative time of first introduction of slaves. What events in other colonies 
took place at nearly the same time ? Place cross-marks in proper positions 
on your chart to represent important events in the different colonies. How 
many and what colonies were founded during the thirty years between 1620 
and 1650 .'' Find a period of 50 years during which no colony was founded. 
What colony was for a while united to New York ? What colony was 
once part of Pennsylvania ? What colonies were founded by people from 
Massachusetts ? 



THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 



09 



Topical Analysis (Middle Colonies). 

f Dutch claims. 

165. Settlement.-^ Trading posts. 

(^ Settlements. 

^, „ ^ f Grants from West India Company. 

The Patroons. <^ ^ ^ ^ 

[^ rower. 

^ ^ , _ ^ f Relations with Indians. 

^TT7TTT vr.T>Tr , ^-/- Dutch Government, i „ 
NEW YORK. <J 1^ Governors. 

C English claims. 

1 68. Fall of Dutch j English conquest. 
Power. I Second supremacy of Dutch. 

[ Final transfer to England. 

„ ,. , T^ , f Incompetent governors. 

169. English Rule. I j^^^^;^^.^^^^^ 



166. 



NEW JERSEY, -i 



( Conflicting claims. 
171. Settlement. ^ English grants. 
[ Settlements. 

Sale of eastern part. 

Sale of western part. 



172. The Colony Divided 






173. The Jerseys j The king and the proprietors. 
United. (^ Connection with New York. 



'175. The Quakers of England. 



76. Founder of the Colony. < ^^^ purpose. 

(^ Grant of terntory. 



PENNSYLVANIA. -{ 177- Settlement. 

j f Immigrants. 

I 1 78. Growth. •{ The Indians. 
(_ 1^ Government. 



o « XX, X r By the Dutch. 

180. Settlement. < J , ^ ^ 

1^ By the Swedes. 



English authority established. 
Transfer to Duke of York. 
[ Transfer to Wm. Penn. 
[ 182. A Separate Province. 



DELAWARE. ^ iSi. Conflicting 
Claims. 



no 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY 



DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. 

185. Cause of the French Wars. — In the latter half of the 
seventeentli century, the struggle for the control of North Amer- 




North America at Beginning of French Wars. 



ica had narrowed down to two nations, France and England. 
It is true that Florida and ]\[exico were held by Spain ; but 
the Spaniards were so intent upon the gold in the mines of 



DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. I I I 

Mexico and South America, that they made no attempt to ex- 
tend their settlements. Engh\nd and France were thus left 
practicall}^ alone in possession of the continent. There were 
two causes that made a conflict between them inevitable. The 
two nations were old enemies. From early times, long and 
bloody wars had been waged between them. A slight pretext 
was enough to occasion hostilities, and their American colonists 
were always ready to take up the quarrel. And then, as the 
growing settlements began to encroach upon each other, local 
causes of enmity arose. Conflicting claims to territory, rela- 
tions with the Indians, difterences in the religion, occupation, 
and character of the English and French settlers, combined to 
cause constant jealousy and to bring about occasional open 
outbreaks. 

i86. Limits of English and French Settlement. — When 
the long struggle began — toward the close of the seventeenth 
century — all the English colonies except Georgia had been 
founded. The English had undisputed possession of the 
Atlantic coast from New England to South Carolina. Although 
they claimed the Pacific Ocean as their western boundary, yet, 
in reality, the Alleghany ]Mountains marked the western limits 
of their settlements and authority. 

The French had built forts and had made scattered settlements 
in Nova Scotia, along the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes, and 
down the Mississippi. Their settlements w^ere generally small 
and far apart. They were most numerous in Acadia (Nova 
Scotia and the adjacent mainland), Canada, and the lake region. 

187. Comparative Strength. — At this period tlie French 
colonists numbered hardly more than 12,000. The total popu- 
lation of the English colonies at the same time was estimated 
at 200,000, — more than sixteen times as many as their French 
rivals. The French plan of conquering the new country was 
chiefly by establishing forts and trading-posts, to be held by 



I 1 2 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

trappers and fur-traders. The English brought over farmers 
and laboring men who cultivated the soil, and made permanent 
homes. In wealth, as in numbers, the English colonies far sur- 
passed the French. While the French settlers were dependent 
on the mother-country for supplies for their armies, the Eng- 
lish colonies were themselves able to support the troops for 
their defense. On the other hand, the French soldiers were 
among the best in the world. Their colonial governors were 
generally able and patriotic men. The French, too, by living 
among the Indians, often intermarr)'ing with tliem. and adopt- 
ing their ways and customs, gained such influence over the sav- 
age tribes tliat they could enlist their powerful aid against the 
English in almost every contest. 

i88. The Iroquois Indians. — There were some Indians, 
however, whom the French could not control. The Iroquois. 
or Five Nations, occupying northern New York, were a group of 
powerful and semi-civilized tribes. Their united strength num- 
bered 4000 warriors. They had well-built villages, and fields of 
corn, beans, and pumpkins. Their discipline and government 
were superior to those of most otlier savage tribes. The loca- 
tion of these Indians — on the border between the French and 
English settlements — and their acknowledged power, gave 
them great importance in the approaching war. For several 
reasons they disliked the French : (i) Champlain, the great 
French explorer, had once sided with tlieir enemies, the Algon- 
quins : {^2^ they looked upon the French as their rivals in 
trapping and fur-trading : (3) there were better opportunities 
for profitable trade with the prosperous English than with the 
French. 

189. Period of the French Wars. — Including varying in- 
tervals of peace, the contest between the French and the English 
in America lasted for seventy-four years (16S9-1763). This 
long struggle included four separate wars, all except the last 



DOWNFALL OF FRENXH POWER IN AMERICA. 



being named from the reigning sovereign of England. They 
are (i) King WiUiam's War, 16S9-97; (^2) Queen Anne's War, 
1702-13: (^3"! King George's War, 1744-S; (^4) French and 
Indian war. 1754-63. 

190. The First Three French Wars. — When James II. was 
banished from England by his subjects he took refuge in France. 
Here he was aided by the French in his effort to regain tlie 
throne from \\'illiam and Mary, who had been crowned king 




erhill FIRST THREE FRENCH WARS 



and queen of England in his stead. This led to a war between 
France and England, in which their American colonies became 
involved, and which was known in America as King William's 
War. Queen Anne's and King George's Wars also originated 
in Europe. The scene of contiict of these three wars was 
New York, Xew England, and the French territorv Iving 
northward.-^ Combined forces of French and Indians swooped 
down upon defenseless villages in Xew York and Massachu- 
setts and committed dreadful massacres. The colonial troops, 
with more or less aid from England, made expeditions against 

1 The English colonies south of Xew York took little part in the first three 
French wars. During King \Mlliam's War. however, the colonists of South Carolina 
were fighting the Spanish and Indians of Florida, and defeated a combined French 
and Spanish expedition from Cuba. (§ 114.) 



114 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Quebec, Port Royal, and Louisburg (the latter a strong fortifi- 
cation on Cape Breton Island). 

191. Results of the First Three French Wars. — But little 
change of territory resulted from these wars. In the first con- 
flict Port Royal was taken by English and colonial troops, but 
was given back to France at the close of the war. In the sec- 
ond war Port Royal, with Acadia, was again captured. This 
time the prize was kept by England, and never again fell into 
the hands of the French.^ The name, Port Royal, was changed 
to Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anne, and Acadia was named 
Nova Scotia.'-^ In King George's War the English achieved a 
splendid success in the capture of Louisburg, the strongest 
fortress in America. It was given back to France, however, at 
the close of the war, much to the disgust of the colonial troops 
who had taken a leading part in its overthrow. 

192. The French and Indian War: Importance. — This 
war differs from the other French wars in several important 
particulars. In the first place, hostilities began in America 
before war had been declared by the mother-countries. It was 
the first war, also, in which all the English colonies were en- 
gaged. It was the bloodiest of the wars, and far the most 
important in its results. 

193. How the War Began. — The English king authorized 
the governor of Virginia to grant a vast tract of land west of 
the Alleghanies to the Ohio Company for the purpose of col- 
onization. The French, who already had a few forts in this 
region, arrested the English immigrants, and established new 
strongholds in the disputed territory. Major George Washing- 
ton, then a young man of twenty-one, was sent by the governor 

1 Newfoundland was also by treaty surrendered to England. The island had 
been occupied by the English since 1583, but fell into French hands during Queen 
Anne's War. 

2 Latin for New Scotland^ to correspond with New England. 



DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. 



115 



of Virginia to request the French to remove their forts. Wash- 
ington performed his dangerous mission wisely and courage- 
ously, but was unable to induce the French officers to retire. 
Soon afterward Washington was sent with a company of Vir- 
ginia troops to, the relief of an English post at the head of the 
Ohio River, then threatened by the French. On his arrival he 
found that the French had captured the place, and had named it 
Fort Duquesne, after the governor of Canada. He repulsed 
the advance guard of the French, but was afterward forced to 
retire, and to surrender his little company at Fort Necessity (in 
southwestern Pennsylvania). Notwithstanding this surrender, 
the young commander and his troops received the thanks of 
the Virginia Assembly for having accomplished so much with 
their small force. 



194. England Takes a Hand. — In England the news of 
the surrender of Fort Necessity caused great indignation, and 




a plan was at once formed for driving the French from the 
entire country. General Edward Braddock was sent to America 



i6 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



with about looo men. At Alexandria, Va., Braddock was met 
by the governors of Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New 
York, and Massachusetts, and a plan of operations was agreed 
upon. English troops, reinforced by colonial forces, were to 
advance and capture Fort Duque.sne;^ another expedition was 
to take Fort Niagara ; ^ a third was to seize Crown Point ; ^ a 
fourth was to attack the Acadian peninsula.^ We 
shall see that each of these plans, except the last, 
was a failure on the first attempt. 

195. Braddock's Defeat. — Braddock was a brave 
and experienced soldier, but wholly unfitted for fron- 
tier warfare. He was used to battles with trained 
soldiers on the open plains of 
Europe. He knew nothing of 
the methods of fighting savages 
in pathless woods. He started 
toward Fort Duquesne with a 
fine army numbering 2000 men, 
consisting of regulars from Eng- 
land and provincials from Vir- 
ginia, Maryland, and New York. Washington commanded the 
Virginia troops. Refusing to listen to the advice of the colonial 
officers, Braddock advanced through the forests, his troops 
encumbered with useless baggage, and with floating flags and 
rolling drums, as if no enemy were near. Within a few miles 
of Fort Duquesne, his army, while passing through a wooded 
ravine, was suddenly attacked from ambush by a strong force of 
French and Indians. The British troops were thrown into 
confusion by the attack from unseen enemies, and fired wildly 
into the air. The colonial soldiers concealed themselves 
quickly behind trees, and fought as the savages did. Brad- 
dock had four horses shot from under him, Washington, two. 




1 Find these places on the map, and tell how their location gave them importance 
in the war. 



DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. II7 

An order to retreat had just been given when Braddock fell 
mortally wounded. His fall caused a panic, and the retreat 
became a rout. Washington and his troops alone saved the 
army from total destruction. 

196. Acadia. — In the same year a force of British and 
colonial troops sailed from Boston, and captured the few re- 
maining French forts in Acadia.^ The French settlers of this 
region had steadfastly refused to take the oath of allegiance 
to England. They were all Roman Catholics, and wholly 
under the influence of French priests, who were hostile to 
English rule and loyal to France. England considered these 
French Acadians a source of perpetual danger to her authority. 
A cruel order was issued to banish them from their homes and 
confiscate their property. The plan was heartlessly carried out. 
About 4000 settlers were taken from their homes — often sepa- 
rated from their families — 
and scattered in different 
colonies from Massachu-^ 
setts to Louisiana. (In the 
poem '' Evangeline," Long- 
fellow touchingly describes 
the sufferings of some of 
these unfortunate people.) 

197. War Declared. — 

France and England de- 
clared war in 1756, after it 
had been raging two years 
in America. Each side sent 
over ships and men, and 
each seemxed to realize that this was to be the final struggle for 
the control of the continent. 

1 This region had been ceded to England at the close of Queen Anne's War, but 
liad not been fully occupied. 




Montcalm. 



ii8 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



1 




198. English Reverses. — The officers first sent over by 
England were inefficient, and were jealous of the colonial lead- 
ers. There was little unity of action between the different 
English armies. On the other hand, Montcalm, commander- 
in-chief of the French troops, was one of the ablest generals 
of his time. His troops were well disciplined, his armies 
acted in harmony. For two years he successfully resisted 
the attacks of the English upon his posts in the disputed 
territory.^ 

199. The Tide Turned. — In 1757 William Pitt became the 
actual head of the British ministry. The force of his genius 
was soon observed in the changed condition of affairs in 

America. Inefficient officers were re- 
moved to give place to able and experi- 
enced ones. The unjust preference 
shown to English regulars over the 
colonial soldiers was no longer observed, 
and all troops were placed on equal foot- 
ing. Energy and unity of action took 
the place of delays and jealousies. 1 

200. Fall of French Strongholds. — 

One by one the great French strong- 
holds fell. Louisburg was surrendered 
in 1758. An attack on Ticonderoga, 
under General Abercrombie, was badly defeated, but the next 
year both Ticonderoga and Crown Point fell into the hands of 
the English. Fort Frontenac, on the north-east shore of Lake 
Ontario, was captured, and the French fleet on the lake 
destroyed. Fort Duquesne, thus cut off from its source of 

1 During this period of French success, their arms met one reverse in the defeat 
01 Dieskau near the south end of Lake George. After their victory the EngUsh 
erected a fort, named Fort WilUam Henry, near the battlefield. Two years later this 
fort was captured by Montcalm. Many of its helpless defenders were cruelly mur- 
dered by the Indian allies of the French, Montcalm being unable to control them. 



William Pitt 



DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. II 9 

supplies, was abandoned on the approach of an Enghsh army. 
Washington, who led the advance guard, planted the English 
flag on the deserted ramparts, and changed the name of the 
place to Fort Pitt (now Pittsburg), in honor of the great 
British minister. Niagara was also taken, thus completely 
cutting off the communication between Canada and Louisiana. 

201. The Last Great Battle. — All that now remained to 
France were a few strongholds along the St. Lawrence and an 
island at the north end of Lake Champlain. Quebec, the capi- 
tal of the French province 

of Canada, was at once ™ 

the strongest and the 

most important of these ^^"^ -z 

defenses. That part of ''*' " '~ 

the town known as the _ ^^r ^ ^1^ 

"upper city" is situated ^v-^-' W 

on a steep bluff over- '^ t^^^^- 

hanging the St. Lawrence 
River. General Mont- 
calm, who commanded °"^ ^""'^''' 
the defenders, had about 13,000 men. These were strongly 
posted for a distance of several miles along the north bank 
of the stream. The English forces under General Wolfe 
numbered 10,000 men. Wolfe spent four months in the 
vain effort to draw his skillful antagonist into a fight in the 
open field, or to surprise some weak place in his defenses. 
At last the keen eye of the English leader espied with his glass 
what seemed to be a ravine threading its way down the preci- 
pice. Closer observation proved it to be a path. Wolfe re- 
solved to make a last desperate attempt to take the city by 
way of this perilous ascent. In the dead of night, boatloads 
of English soldiers floated silently down the stream, landed at 
the foot of the hidden path, and in single file climbed to the 



120 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



top. Here, on a lofty plain, called the Heights of Abraham, 
the few astonished guards were overpowered, and 5000 troops, 

r - ^ with Wolfe at their head, ranged themselves 
^ " in battle line before their enemies were 

/B aware of their presence. The French rushed 

desperately to the attack. Both generals 
were mortally wounded. In his dying mo- 
ments Wolfe heard the cry, " They run 1 " 
" Who run ? " he gasped. " The French 1 " 
" God be praised ! " he murmured, " I die 
happy." Five days after this victory the 
city was surrendered. 

202. Close of the War. — The next year 
the French attempted to recapture Quebec. 
The effort failed, and a few months later 
Montreal and all the French ports in Canada 
were surrendered to the English. Although 
the fall of Canada closed the contest in 
America, war continued to be waged else- 
where between France and England. In 1762 Spain entered 
the war to aid France ; but Great Britain completely conquered 
both nations. In 1763 a treaty of peace was signed at Paris. 
France yielded to Great Britain all her possessions in North 
America east of the Mississippi.^ Spain agreed to give up 
Florida to Great Britain in exchange for the city of Havana, 
Cuba, which an English fleet had captured the year before. 

203. Results of the French Wars. — The close of the 
French and Indian War marks the downfall of the French 
power in America. All the vast region conquered for France 
by her explorers, missionaries, traders, and settlers was thus 
wrested from her grasp by her most hated enemy. England 

1 The territory of France west of the Mississippi was ceded to Spain to prevent 
its falling into the hands of England. 




WOLFE & MONTCAL 

MONUMENT^/>.V^ 



DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. 



121 



had now undisputed control of the eastern half of North 
America, from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. The 
four wars had cost each side thousands of lives and millions 
of money. For the Ameri- 
can colonists other results 
were wrought besides 
those measured in terri- 
tory, lives, and money. 
The wars united the peo- 
ple. The widely separated 
colonists learned to act 
together against a com- 
mon foe. The success of 
colonial troops, fighting 
side by side with English 
regulars, taught them self- 
reliance and independence. The hard experiences of war gave 
the colonial soldiers valuable military training, and developed 
the genius of such leaders as Washington, Putnam, Stark, 
Sumter, Marion, and others. On the whole, it may be said 
that the French wars were a training-school to the American 
colonists for the great struggle with the mother-country which 
began twelve years later. 




North America at Close of French Wars, 1763. 



204. Summary. — The French wars extended over a period of seventy- 
four years, from 1689 to 1763. At the beginning of this period, England 
held the Atlantic coast from New England to South Carolina. France 
controlled the region between the mouth of the St. Lawrence and the head 
of Lake Superior, and from the source of the Mississippi to its mouth. 
The first three wars, William's, Anne's, George's (mnemonic word, W.-A.-G.), 
originated in Europe, were waged chiefly on the frontiers of New England 
and New York, and, save in the surrender of Acadia by the French, re- 
sulted in no change of territory. In the last and most important war, the 
French and Indian, all the English colonies were concerned. It originated 
in America over a question of disputed territory. The English were un- 
successful until the genius of William Pitt turned the tide. The last great 



122 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

French stronghold, Quebec, fell after a desperate battle, in which both 
generals, Wolfe and Montcalm, were killed. By the treaty of peace, 1763, 
France gave to England all her territory east of the Mississippi ; Spain 
gave Florida to England. To the English colonists, the French Wars 
were a valuable preparation for the approaching struggle with the mother- 
country. 

205. Thought Questions. — What first attracted the French to the 
country about the mouth of the St. Lawrence ? Why did they follow the 
water-courses in their explorations and settlements .'' Why did so many 
French Huguenots settle in the English rather than in the French colonies } 
What does the fact that European colonists in America were so ready to 
take up the quarrels of the mother-country prove .-' How did it happen 
that so few colonies were engaged in the first three French wars .-* Why 
were all the colonies united in the French and Indian War? Did the 
Iroquois Indians pursue the wisest course ? Was the English claim to the 
land west of the Alleghanies more just than that of the French.'' Give 
reason for your opinion. Show how each side might claim that the other 
began the war. What excuse had the English ? the French ? 

Topical Analysis (French Wars in America). 

„ ^ , „ . f Struggle for control of North America. 

185. Cause of French ^,, , ^^ . . 
■^ <( Old enmities. 

(^ Local differences. 

^, -,.-., ^ . ^ English. 

186. Territorial Possessions. < ^ , 
I French. 

f Number of colonists. 

187. Comparative Strength. -{ Plans of conquest. 
[^ Advantages of each. 

( Importance in the struggle. 

188. Iroquois Indians. -^ Advancement toward civilization. 
(^ Hostility toward P>ench. 

f King William's. 

^ , , , ,, „ , ,„ j Queen Anne's. 

189. Period of the French Wars, i ,.. ^ 

j King George s. 

I French and Indian. 
C 190. Causes and Incidents. 
FIRST THREE ! f King William's War. 

WARS. j 191. Territorial Changes. -{ Queen Anne's War. 

I [ King George's War. 



DOWNFALL OF FRENCH POWER IN AMERICA. 123 

192. Importance. 
r Grant to Ohio Company. 

, , , Encroachments of French. 

1 93. Beginning of the War <^ .,, , . ^ , 
■^■^ *» ^ W ashmgton s mission. 

i. Surrender at Fort Necessity. 

C Feeling in England. 

194. Troops from England. <I General Braddock. 
[ Plan of operations. 

C His ignorance of frontier warfare. 

195. Braddock's Defeat. <! March of his army. 
^ [ Attack of French and Indians. 
^ r Capture of P>ench forts. 
^ ^ ' ' \ Cruel treatment of colonists. 
^ 197. War Declared, 
S r Weakness of English troops. 



4 



198. English Reverses. < Advantages of the French. 
Q (^ First two years of war. 

§ , r William Pitt. 

199. The Tide Turned, i „, , ,.,. . 

^ ^-^ I Changed condition in America. 



W I Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 



Louisburg. 



fe 200. Fall of French Strongholds. < Fort Frontenac. 

I Fort Duquesne. 

(^ Niagara. 

f Situation of Quebec. 

Forces of Wolfe and Montcalm. 
The Last Battle. <{ „, , ,^, 
I The battle. 

L The surrender. 

f Canada surrendered to the English. 

Close of the War. <( Treaty of peace. 

[ Changes of territory. 

^ r English possessions in North America. 

RESULTS OF THE W- \ r T v, 

"^ ^ ' Cost of the wars. 



FRENCH WARS. | '°^'- | ^^^^^.^ ^„ E^gy^^ ^„l„„i3,3. 



124 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 



206. Introductory. — The downfall of the French power in 
America (1763) marks the close of an era in the history of 
the English colonies. Now begins the story of quarrels with 
the mother-country, the long and bloody war of the Revolu- 
tion, and the establishment of the Republic of the United 
States. 

Before entering upon this period, so full of stirring scenes 
and momentous changes, we may pause a moment to consider 
the home-life of the people in the old colonial days, soon to 
pass away forever. 

207. Geographical Limits. — Virginia, the oldest colony, 
had now been established 156 years ; Georgia, the youngest, 
31 years. There had been many changes in territorial limits. 
In some cases, colonies were formed from the union of other 
colonies, as Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and 
New Jersey. In other cases, new colonies were formed by 
dividing the territory of colonies already existing, as New 
Hampshire, Delaware, and the Carolinas. The settlements 
occupied a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast. The vast 
region west of the Alleghany Mountains was included, how- 
ever, in the territory of the different colonies, their claims 
being based on royal grants or on explorations made by the 
colonists themselves. Virginia was the largest colony, and 
Georgia ranked next in size. The district of Maine was part 
of Massachusetts, and the present State of Vermont was claimed 
by New York and New Hampshire. 

The map opposite page 211 will show the limits of the colonies 
at the close of the colonial period. 

208. Population. — For nearly a century and a half after 
the founding of Jamestown, the growth of the colonies, as a 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 1 25 

whole, was slow and beset with many difficulties. From about 
the middle of the eighteenth century, however, there was a 
rapid increase in population. At the close of the colonial period, 
the total population of the colonies was probably somewhat 
over 2,000,000 (about equal to that of New York City to-day). 
Virginia was the most populous colony, her inhabitants num- 
bering half a million. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania ranked 
next to her, while New York came seventh, and Georgia 
thirteenth in population. 

The Indians had nearly all been driven westward across the 
mountains. There were no cities, most of the people living on 
farms or in small towns. The largest towns were Philadelphia, 
New York, Boston, and Charleston, but none of these contained 
over 20,000 inhabitants. 

209. Slavery. — Negro slaves were found in all the colonies, 
and there was little prejudice against the system. North or 
South. ^ A Dutch vessel brought over the first cargo of African 
slaves. Afterward English and New England ships were active 
in carrying on the traffic. It proved extremely profitable, and 
was encouraged by the British government. At first the slaves 
were employed chiefly as house-servants ; but it was soon found 
that they were best adapted to farm labor and a warm climate. 
In the northern colonies, with their commercial pursuits, small 
farms, and cold climate, slavery was not profitable, and the 
number of negroes was never large. In the southern colonies, 
however, the great tobacco and rice plantations created a de- 
mand for slave labor, and the number of slaves rapidly in- 
creased. At the close of the French wars there were nearly 
500,000 slaves in the colonies, of whom eight-ninths were 
south of Mason and Dixon's line (§ loi). 

1 One of the agreements between the colonies forming the New England Confed- 
eration was that runaway slaves should be delivered up on demand. 



126 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

210. Government. — The English colonies were all subject 
to the Crown, and the general features of colonial government 
were similar. Each had a governor and a law-making body- 
composed of two branches/ the smaller body called the " Coun- 
cil," the larger the "Assembly." The Assembly was in all 
cases chosen by the people. With these resemblances there 
were certain differences, (i) Massachusetts,^ Connecticut, and 
Rhode Island each had a charter from the king, giving them 
the right to elect all their officers. This made these colonies 
almost like independent republics, so far, at least, as their 
local government was concerned. They may be called the 
Repiiblican Colonies. 

(2) Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland also had charters, 
but these charters conferred the right of government upon the 
proprietors instead of upon the people. The proprietor ap- 
pointed the governor and Council for his colony. These were 
called Proprietary Colo7iies. 

(3) Of the remaining seven colonies. New Hampshire never 
had a charter, and the original charters of the others had been 
annulled. The governor and Council in these colonies were 
appointed directly by the king, and they were known, there- 
fore, as the Royal Colonies. 

211. Colonies Classified. — The life of the people in the 
various colonies differed greatly. This may be readily accounted 
for, when we remember the different classes of Englishmen 
who settled the colonies, the presence of a large foreign popu- 
lation in many of them, the varying local conditions, as of 
climate, soil, or relations with the Indians, and the infre- 
quency of intercourse between settlements. Yet in each of the 
three great groups, — the New England, the Middle, and the 

1 But see § 233. 

2 After 1692 the governor of Massachusetts was appointed by the king, although 
the colony still had a charter. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 12/ 

Southern colonies, — we find a certain uniformity in character 
and institutions. Each group has one or more "parent" col- 
onies of which the others are offshoots, and which, from their 
predominating influence, may be considered typical colonies of 
the several groups. Thus, in the Southern division Virginia 
is the representative ; in the Middle division, New York and 
Pennsylvania ; in the New England division, Massachusetts. 



The New England Colonies. 

212. Occupations of the People. — With the exception of 
Connecticut, the soil of New England is generally rocky and 
unfruitful, and so offered the colonists little inducement to the 
pursuit of agriculture. Farming on a small scale, however, 
was everywhere followed, — grain, hay, vegetables, hemp, and 
flax being the principal products. The fisheries, especially 
whale and cod, were the source of greatest wealth. The forests 
contained an inexhaustible supply of valuable timber, which 
the colonists were not slow to utilize. Shipbuilding became a 
leading industry. New England ships carried a large part of 
the commerce of all the colonies. An extensive trade with 
neighboring colonies and the West Indies sprang up. Ships 
loaded with New England products would visit the West Indies 
and return with cargoes of sugar, molasses, and slaves. Part of 
the sugar and molasses was converted into rum and again ex- 
ported. The New Englanders were skillful in all kinds of 
handiwork, and labor was greatly diversified. We find soap- 
boilers, tinkers, tailors, glovers, coopers, shoemakers, curriers, 
glaziers, millers, tallow-chandlers, and barber-surgeons,^ all 
represented among the colonists. 

1 Before the days of regular physicians, barbers practiced a rude surgery. The 
barber's pole, with its red stripes, was first used as a sign of the bloody nature of the 
surgeon's work. 



128 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

213. Town Life and Government. — In most of the colonies 
towns were a comparatively late growth, springing up gradually as 
population increased. In New England, on the contrary, towns 
existed from the first, and lay at the foundation of colonial life 
and government. There were no large plantations. The set- 
tlers built their homes near together around their "meeting- 
house." Each man had his share of land, and also certain 
rights of pasturage in the " common," an open field belonging 
to the whole community. 

The term "town" included not only the village, but the sur- 
rounding district of small farms within convenient distance 
from the meeting-house. Each town had a representative in 
the colonial Legislature, besides the privilege of managing com- 
pletely its local affairs. At stated times the "town meeting" 
was held in the church. Here every citizen (in Massachusetts, 
only church-members) had a vote and an equal voice in debate. 
Taxes were levied, laws passed, and the " selectmen " to whom 
their town's affairs were to be entrusted for the coming year 
were chosen. This town government still exists in New Eng- 
land, and as a system of local self-government deserves our 
study and admiration. 

214. Religion. — The religion of the New Englanders filled 
a large share of their thoughts, and influenced every depart- 
ment of their life. In doctrine the Puritan Church was Calvin- 
istic. In government it was Congregational ; that is, the direc- 
tion of church affairs was in the hands of the members of each 
congregation, and no higher authority was recognized. In 
spirit it was characterized by depth of conviction and bitter 
intolerance. Freedom of thought in religion was rewarded 
with stripes, imprisonment, or banishment.^ The ministers 
were highly educated men, usually of marked ability and purity 
of life. They were looked up to by the community, and ex- 

1 Rhode Island was a notable exception in this respect. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 1 29 

erted a powerful influence in secular as well as religious affairs. 
The performance of religious duties was enforced by law. The 
people were summoned to church by the beating of a drum. 
Those who stayed away without good excuse had to pay a fine. 
Certain seats near the pulpit were reserved for the elders and 
deacons. The men were seated on one side of the church, the 
women on the other. Behind these were the children and ne- 
groes, and back of all the "tithing men," whose business it was 
to see that a properly reverent spirit was maintained. These 
last were armed with long rods, tipped with brass at one end, 
and a rabbit's foot at the other. As the sermon was often two 
hours long and the prayers in proportion, it not infrequently 
happened that the head of a restless boy was sharply rapped 
with the brass end of the tithing man's rod, or the nose of 
some sleepy old lady gently tickled with the rabbit's foot to 
rouse her from her slumber. No organ nor instrumental music 
of any kind was allowed. The clerk, or precentor, from his 
station in front of the pulpit read out one line at a time from 
the " Bay Psalm Book," while the congregation vigorously 
chanted it after him in different keys. This was called " sing- 
ing by rule." Singing by note was introduced later. 

215. The Sabbath. — Strict observance of the Sabbath (it 
was never called Sunday) was a marked feature of Puritan life. 
The Sabbath began at six o'clock on Saturday evening, and 
closed at sundown on Sunday. Laws to punish violations of the 
Sabbath were numerous and rigidly enforced. No work save 
v/hat was absolutely necessary, no travel, no amusements were 
permitted. 

216. Laws. — The laws were patterned after the Old Testa- 
ment, and regulated minute details of life. In Massachusetts 
there were thirteen offenses punishable by death (not half so 
many, however, as in England at the same time). Among 
these were murder, arson, blasphemy, abuse of parents. Hang- 



I30 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 




ing was the usual mode of capital punishment, but negroes 

were sometimes burned at the stake. Imprisonment was not a 

common punishment. 

For minor offenses the 

stocks, the ducking-stool, " 

pillory, and whipping-post - 

were used. Sometimes Ducking stooi. 

the forehead or cheek of the culprit was 
branded with a hot iron, or he was com- 
pelled to wear, sewed on his garment, a 
large colored letter to indicate his crime. 
Great publicity was given to all kinds of 
punishment. 




Stocks. 



217. Grades of Society. — There were various grades of so- 
ciety among the New England colonists, with the difference 
between them plainly marked. These social distinctions were 
partly brought over from England, and were partly based on 
education, service to the state, and wealth. The classes, in 
order of rank, were gentlemen, yeomen, merchants, mechanics, 
indented servants,^ and negro slaves. Goodman and goodwife 
were the ordinary titles of men and women. Mr. and Mrs. 
could only be applied to those of the upper class, or order of 
"gentlemen." We are told that Mr. Josias Plaistow, having 
been convicted of theft, was condemned thereafter to drop his 
title, and be known as plain Josias. 

The seats at church were carefully arranged according to the 
social rank of the occupants. The order of names in the college 
catalogues was determined in the same way. It was not till 
1772 that Harvard College substituted the alphabetical arrange- 
ment. 

i These were persons who bound themselves to service for a term of years in pay- 
ment of some debt, generally for their passage to America. For the origin of this 
use of the word " indented," see any standard unabridged dictionary. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 



131 




218. Dress. — Ordinarily the men wore a homespun jacket 
with a belt around it at the waist, breeches reaching to the 
knees and tied, black stockings that came 
up to the knees, and coarse shoes. Both 
men and women wore tall, pointed hats. 
The women's dresses were of coarse linen. 
They usually plaited their hair in a simple 
braid, but on Sunday it was coiled on top 
of the head and powdered. Among the 
wealthy classes of the large towns there 
was finer dressing, yet undue extravagance 
in dress was prohibited by law. A law of 
Massachusetts forbade the use of veils, 
"immoderate great sleeves," and "slashed 
apparel." ,, ^ , , ^ 

^^ New England Colon, ot. 

219. Social Life. — The early Puritans were a stern people, 
averse to social pleasure, though in later times this soberness 

melted to a considerable 
degree. The house-rais- 
ings, huskings, and quilting 
parties gave them an op- 
portunity to help each other 
and indulge in social pleas- 
ures. They did not observe 
Christmas, because they 
associated it with Popish 
feast days. Their holidays 
were Thanksgiving Day, 
Fast Day, Election Day, 
and Training Day (for 
drilling the militia). Mar- 
riage was regarded as a 
civil contract, and was usually performed by justices of the 
peace. Early marriages were common. One writer of the 




Interior of Settler's lit 



132 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

period speaks of "Miss Wilkins, an old maid of twenty-six, 
looked on in Boston as a dismal spectacle." 

At their funerals, in the small towns, the cotHn was carried to 
the grave on men's shoulders. After the burial all returned to 
the home of the deceased, and closed the day with feasting and 
drinking. 

The houses were built of logs, covered with rough boards. 
Each house had a large chimney, with its immense open fire- 
place, often large enough to hold a wagon-load of wood. As 
there were no stoves in those days, the cooking was done in. 
these open fire-places. 

220. Education. — From the beginning of their settlement, 
die men of New England took a deep interest in education. 
One of their first acts was to establish a system of free schools. 
In 1649 education was compulsory in every New England 
colony except Rhode Island, and few adults were unable to 
read and write. Seven years after the founding of Salem, 
the Legislature of ]\Iassachusetts appropriated a sum for 
establishing a college. Two years later Rev. John Harvard, 
of Charlestown, died, leaving his library and half of his estate, 
with which to aid the plan. In gratitude to its benefactor the 
new institution was called Harvard College, now the oldest col- 
lege in the United States. Yale College was founded in Con- 
necticut, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. At a later 
period Dartmouth College was established in New Hampshire, 
and Brown College in Rhode Island. 

221. Literature. — At lirst the colonists had few books, and 
these were brought from England. The Bible was tlie one 
book most universally read, studied, and memorized. In 1639 
the first printing press was set up at Cambridge, Massachu- 
setts. It was the beginning of the next century before the first 
permanent newspaper in America, the "Boston News-Letter," 
appeared. No form of literature was more widely read than 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 133 



Poor Richard, I73^> 



AN 

Almanack 

FortheYearofChrift 
Being the FirH after LEAP TEAR . 

yfftd makes fncc iH Credllm Tears 

By the Account of the Eaflcm Crkks 11^\ 

By the Latfn Church, when O CDt r ^9^2 

By the Computation of /fC/fC i742 

By the Jioman Chronoiogy 5682 

By the Jmifi Habbies. 5494 

Wherein is contained^ 

The Lunations, Eclipfes, Judgment of 
the Weather, Spring Tides, Planets Motions Sc 
mutual Afpcfls, Sun and Moon's Rifing and Set- 
ting, length of Days, Tinwt of High Water, 
"Fairs, Courts, and obfervablc Days, 

Fitted to the Latitude of Forty Degrees^ 

and a Meridian of Five Hours Wed from Z<m<^n, 
but may "without fenfible Error, ferve all the ad- 
jacent Places, even from J^ev/foundiacJ^xa SauA* 
Caroliha- 

By RKHJRD SAUNDERS.Vhilom . 

PHILADELPHIA^ 

Printed and fold by 3. FRJlSfKLIK at the New- 

Printing- Office near the Market 



Titit Page of " Poor Richard's Almanack." 



134 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the almanac. "Poor Richard's Almanack," prepared and 
published by Benjamin Franklin, was perhaps the most popular 
of these. It contained scraps of history and poetry, anecdotes 
and epigrams. Some of the wise sayings of "Poor Richard" 
are familiar proverbs to-day. The " Almanacks " were care- 
fully preserved, some households possessing a file of them for 
fifty years. The ministers of New England produced most of 
the writings. The books were nearly all on theological sub- 
jects. Jonathan Edwards's great work, " On the Freedom of 
the Will," is yet considered a masterpiece of logical reasoning. 
The Puritans were great versifiers, but produced little true 
poetry.^ 

222. Summary. — It has been said that the characteristic features 
of New England life were her town meetings, schools, and churches. 
The most prominent traits which lay at the basis of these institutions 
were intense earnestness, intellectual activity, and hatred of all resem- 
blance to priestly rule. The people were orderly and industrious. Their 
keenness of intellect, thrift, and experience in trade made them shrewd bar- 
gain-drivers, whose reputation remains to their descendants to-day. The 
influence of their religion on all departments of life, and their intolerance 
toward other sects, were marked features of their civilization. The gentle, 
imaginative, poetic side of their nature was not developed. The educa- 
tional preeminence of colonial New England was pronounced. The same 
fixedness of conviction that led her people to ignore the rights of others 

1 The most popular book written in New England before the Revolution was a 
poem by Michael Wigglesworth, called the " Day of Doom." The following stanza 
from this "blazing and sulphurous" work describes the fate of the wicked : 

" Then might you hear them tear and rend 
The air with their out-cries : 
The hideous noise of their sad voice 

Ascendeth to the skies. 
They wring their hands, their caitiff hands, 

And gnash their teeth for terror ; 
They cry, they roar, for anguish sore, 

And gnaw their tongues for horror. 
But get away without delay ; 
Christ pities not your cry ; 
Depart to hell, there may you yell 
And roar eternally." 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 1 35 

made them tenacious of their own. In the approaching contest with Eng- 
land, Massachusetts and Virginia led the way, and the New England colo- 
nists furnished to that struggle, and to the national character, some ele- 
ments of greatest strength. 



The Southern Colonies. 

223. Occupations. — The first settlers in the Southern colo- 
nies found a climate and soil admirably adapted to agriculture. 
The Indians being usually friendly, it was not necessary for 
them to live in towns for the purpose of mutual defence. 
Numerous inlets of the sea and navigable rivers afforded a 
convenient means for the transportation of their products to 
European or colonial markets. The introduction of slave labor 
increased the profits of agriculture. Accordingly, farming was 
from the first the universal occupation of the people. There 
were small traders, but no considerable micrchant-class. Car- 
penters and mechanics were rare. On each plantation a few 
slaves were trained as blacksmiths, shoemakers, etc. The 
commonest articles of furniture were imported from England. 
A few iron furnaces were established in Virginia by Governor 
Spottswood, and among the North Carolinians the production of 
lumber, tar, and turpentine in a measure took the place of agri- 
culture. The professions of law and medicine had few follow- 
ers, and did not acquire any standing until near the Revolution. 

224. Principal Crops. — In South Carolina and Georgia, rice 
and indigo were the principal productions. Cotton was raised, 
but not in any great quantity. In Virginia, Maryland, and North 
Carolina, tobacco was the universal crop. Its culture was so 
profitable that everything else was neglected, and it supplied 
the place of money as a medium of exchange. Taxes were 
levied in tobacco, and salaries were paid in tobacco. In later 
colonial days, grain became an important crop in Maryland, and 
large quantities of flour were exported from Baltimore. 



136 HISTORY OF OUK COUNTRY. 

225. Absence of Towns. — Absence of towns was charac- 
teristic of all the Southern colonies. Plantations lined the 
banks of the navigable streams, and each planter had a wharf 
on the river front, where ships laden with manufactured articles 
from England would land, and receive in return cargoes of 
colonial products. Thus every planter was his own merchant. 
Jamestown, for a long time the principal town of Virginia, con- 
sisted of a church, court-house, and about eighteen other houses. 
The county-seats, established by law for the administration of 
justice, were often located in the midst of a forest, and con- 
sisted of a court-house, a prison, a poorly-kept inn, and usually 
a church. The Legislatures of several of the colonies passed 
laws that towns should be established at specified places " for 
the encouragement of trade and manufacture." But these 
"paper towns" were failures. At the close of the colonial 
period, Charleston, with a population of about 15,000, was the 
principal town in the Southern colonies. Baltimore came next 
in size, then Norfolk, Virginia, with about 7000. Savannah, 
the largest town in Georgia, had 1200 inhabitants. In North 
Carolina only three places could be called towns, the largest, 
Wilmington, with a population of not over 600. 

226. Slavery. — The culture of tobacco and rice, by mak- 
ing slave labor profitable, fastened the institution of African 
slavery upon the Southern colonies. Slaves were most numer- 
ous in South Carolina, where they outnumbered the whites two 
to one. In Virginia the slave and free population were about 
equal. The prohibition of slavery in Georgia was found to re- 
tard the growth of the colony, and was finally removed through 
the protests of the colonists and the influence of Rev. George 
Whitefield, who argued that the transportation of the negro 
from his savage home in Africa to a Christian land, where he 
would be humanely treated and forced to work, was a benefit 
to him. Alarm at the rapid increase of slaves, and dread of 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 



137 



an uprising of the negroes, led to the passage of extremely 
harsh laws concerning them. Yet, in general, the relation be- 
tween master and slave was a kindly one.^ The negroes were 
well fed, comfortably clothed, not overworked, and, as a class, 
were contented and happy. 

227. Government. — At the close of the colonial period all 
the Southern colonies, except Maryland, had come under the 
Royal form of government (§ 210). The privilege of voting 
was usually restricted to land-owners. Political affairs were 
controlled by the large planters, who were cordially supported, 
however, by the small farmers. The county 
(instead of the town, as in New England) 
was the unit of local government, and was 
modeled after the English shire. Commis- 
sioners, or justices of the peace, were ap- 
pointed by the governor for each county, to 
try offenses and administer such affairs as 
were not regulated by the Assembly. In 
some instances the church vestry, chosen by 
the heads of families, exercised certain powers 
of government. As a rule the people were '" *^® '''"°'^' 
not hampered by legal restraints upon the minor details of 
their conduct. The whipping-post was the common means of 
punishing violators of the law, though the pillory and ducking- 
stool were not unfamiliar objects. Cutting the ears was some- 
times resorted to, as in the case of the faithless clerk of the 
Virginia Assembly (§ 92). 

228. Society. — The planters were the ruling class socially 
as well as politically. They comprised two divisions, the large 

1 The little son of the planter might often be seen in the cabin " quarters " seated 
upon the knee of a gray-haired negro and listening with wonder and delight to 
the old " uncle's " tales of " Bre'r Rabbit " and " Bre'r Fox" ; when bed-time found 
" little massa " thus, he was tenderly carried home in the arms of his black " mammy," 
as his nurse was called. 




35^ 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY 



land-holders and the small planters. Separated from the 
planters by a broad social gulf was the comparatively small 
class of merchant-traders and landless laborers. At the bot- 
tom of the social scale, and cut off from the rest by an impassa- 
ble barrier, was the great mass of negro slaves. The large 
planters, with their hundreds of acres and scores of slaves, gave 
an aristocratic air to southern life. One of these estates re- 
sembled a small village. In the center of a grassy lawn, dotted 
with stately trees, stood the mansion of the planter, built of 







F\ 1 


tX f tM 


^ 


^H ^'. 


' i- ; 


p^^'^^'di 1 


^'^i^»| 


^JE^ 


Kts 


Im 


pi^nH 




^B^ 


a... .'^' 


^^^H 



Southern Colonial Mansion. 



wood or brick, two stories high, with its broad veranda sup- 
ported by lofty pillars, its wide hallway, and low ceilings. 
Clustered around the mansion were numerous offices and store- 
houses, while a row of cabins, comprising the " negro-quarters," 
nestled in the distance.^ The small planters lived in less 
style, and had fewer slaves. Bountiful hospitality charac- 
terized the people. There was usually one miserable tavern 
at each county-seat, but this was chiefly a resort for loafing 
and drinking. Only when court was in session did it have 

1 In the Southern colonies tlie lav; of entail provided that estates could not be 
divided, but were to be handed down to the eldest son. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 1 39 

any guests. " Court-days " were eagerly welcomed by the 
people as a release from their isolated life. Then the deserted 
county-seat became a scene of bustle and confusion. The free- 
men of the county, rich and poor, there met on an equal foot- 
ing, cracked jokes, talked politics, engaged in athletic sports, 
" swapped " horses, or bet on the speed of a favorite nag. In 
fine weather barbecues were common, when whole oxen and 
pigs were roasted, and contests in fiddling, wrestling, and danc- 
ing were held. Once a year, when the Assembly met, the colo- 
nial capital was a gay social center. Then the planter and his 
wife and daughters, arrayed in their finest clothes, were whirled 
away in their coach-and-four to Annapolis, Williamsburg, or 
Charleston, where they listened to the speeches in the hall of 
burgesses, visited horse-races, or attended a grand ball at the 
governor's " palace." Marriages were performed by clergymen, 
usually in church. In Maryland a special tax was imposed upon 
bachelors. In Virginia it would seem that the modern practice 
of " flirting " was discouraged. Governor Wyat, of that colony, 
required that any man or woman " engaging to marry two sev- 
eral persons at one time " should be punished by whipping or 
a fine, " according to the quality of the person so offending." 

229. Religion. — At the close of the colonial period the 
Church of England was the Established^ Church in all the 
Southern colonies, although in Virginia alone did its members 
constitute a majority of the white population. Among dissent- 
ing sects, the most numerous and influential in Virginia and 
North Carolina were the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians ; in South 
Carolina, Huguenots ; in Maryland, Roman Catholics and Puri- 
tans; in Georgia, Lutherans, Methodists, and Baptists. Fining, 
imprisonment, and banishment were punishments sometimes 
inflicted for non-conformity to the Established Church. Mary- 
land was the first colony to establish religious toleration, and 

1 That is, the State Church, supported by the government. 



I40 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



the Carolinas and Georgia followed her example. The first 
permanent church in America was erected at Jamestown. The 

governor and his council, 
in full dress, were regular 
attendants, and occupied 
seats of honor. Owing 
to the scattered popula- 
tion, some of the parishes 
extended over fifty miles, 
rendering regular attend- 
ance upon church im- 
possible. The ministers 
were brought from Eng- 
land, and included many 
men of high character 
and mental ability, such 
as Rev. Jas. Blair, the 
founder of William and 
Mary College. In later 
colonial times, however, 
the fast lives of some of 
the English clergy, their quarrels over questions of salary, and 
the suspicion of disloyalty to the colonies lessened the in- 
fluence of the ministry as a class. 

230. Education. — The sparsely settled character of the 
country in the South made it difficult to establish schools. 
Governor Berkeley's oft-quoted remark that he *' thanked God 
there were no free schools nor printing-presses in Virginia" 
was not the sentiment of the colonists, but indicated the policy 
of the English governors, who would have tfieir subjects 
ignorant in order to keep them submissive. Yet the bigotry 
of the rulers had its effect in encouraging indifference to 
popular education. Schools in the South were few. The 




Old Brick Church, near Smithfield, Va. 
Erected in 1632. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 



141 



wealthy planters employed private tutors, or sent their sons to 
England to be educated. Yet the founding of William and 
Mary College in Virginia in 1693, the second oldest college in 
the United States, shows the early interest of the people in 
education. Through the efforts of Rev. Jas. Blair ;^2 5oo 
were subscribed by the colonists for founding a college. The 
Assembly approved the plan, and against official resistance in 
England a charter was secured from the sovereigns, William 




William and Mary College in 1739. 

and Mary, after whom the institution was named. The first 
commencement of the college was a grand occasion. Not 
only Virginians but a number of Indians were present, while 
visitors from Maryland and even from Pennsylvania and New 
York came in boats to attend the exercises. 



231. Literature. — Printing was forbidden in Virginia by 
the English government, and was discouraged in all the 
colonies directly under the Crown. The first newspaper in 
the South was the Maryland Gazette^ which appeared at 
Annapolis in 1727. In 1765 there were ten newspapers in 
the Southern colonies ; two in Maryland, one in Virginia, two 



142 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

in North Carolina, four in South Carolina, and one in Georgia. 
(In the same year the Middle colonies had thirteen news- 
papers, New England twenty.) The books of the colonists, 
like their furniture, were imported from England. The pro- 
ductions of native authors were generally narrative or descrip- 
tive, and possessed no permanent literary value. Compared 
with the writings of New England, the literature of the South 
was less abundant and was characterized by lightness and 
worldliness rather than by theological soberness. 

232. Summary. — In the Southern colonies, as a whole, loyalty to the 
king and to the Established Church characterized the dominant class of 
settlers. The circumstances of their new homes made them an agricultural 
people and fastened upon them the institution of slavery. These facts 
will account for the distinctive features of colonial civilization in the 
South. There was no diversity of labor. The planters constituted the 
bulk of the population and were the leaders in society and politics. The 
" poor whites," descendants, for the most part, of indented servants, were 
ignorant and shiftless. They were few in number, however, and without 
standing or influence. The slaves constituted nearly half the population, 
and as a rule were humanely treated. The isolated homes of the colonists 
and the bigotry of their rulers hindered the progress of popular education. 
Nevertheless there were occasional free schools, and Virginia boasted the 
second oldest college in the country. While instances of religious persecu- 
tion were not wanting, yet intolerance was not a characteristic of the people. 
Loyal churchmen as they were, they were quick to resent any infringe- 
ment of their rights by king or clergy. Jovial, hospitable, and sociable, 
their manner of life encouraged extravagance and love of ease. Gambling 
and intemperance were prevailing vices. Open-hearted generosity, refine- 
ment of feeling, patriotism, and a high sense of honor were characteristics 
of the better class. When the Revolutionary struggle came on, no section 
of the country furnished so splendid a group of leaders in the council and 
the field. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 



143 



The Middle Colonies. 

233. Nationality and Occupation of the People. — New 
York and Delaware alone of the thirteen colonies were not 
founded by the English race. The population of the Middle 
colonies as a whole was more heterogeneous than that of 
either New England or the South. 
The descendants of the Dutch 
continued to constitute a majority 
of the white population of New 
York, and gave a distinctive char- 
acter to the colony. The Germans 
in Pennsylvania nearly equaled in 
number the colonists of English 
descent. Agriculture and trade in 
nearly equal proportions engaged 
the attention of the people. Grain 
was the principal production, al- 
though there was a considerable 
diversity of crops. Numerous windmills in New York and 
watermills in Pennsylvania ground the wheat into flour, which 




Dutch Windmill. 




hirst Warehouse in New York. 



formed the leading export. New York was the chief trading 
and commercial colony. The fur-trade was most extensive and 
profitable. There were glass and paper factories, and in 



144 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Pennsylvania the iron industry received some attention. In 
Pennsylvania the professions of law and medicine were in 
good repute. 

234. Religion. — Religious toleration was a marked charac- 
teristic of the Middle colonies. New York formed an exception 
to this in her treatment of the Roman Catholics and Quakers. 
Her hatred of the Catholics was largely due to constant war- 
fare with the Roman Catholic French of Canada. The Quak- 
ers, true to their teachings, established a religious toleration as 
complete as that of to-day, and Pennsylvania became a refuge 
for a great variety of religious denominations. The ministers 
in the Middle colonies were generally upright and learned men. 
Those of New York were jovial in their lives and free from 
great formality. The predominant sects were Dutch Prot- 
estants in New York ; Quakers in Pennsylvania and Dela- 
ware ; Quakers, Congregationalists, and Scotch Presbyterians 
in New Jersey. 

235. Education. — Numerous free schools were supported in 
New York by the Dutch. Under English rule, however, popu- 
lar education in the colony languished. The only free school 
in Pennsylvania was founded by the Quakers at Philadelphia 
in 1689. There were a few private schools in Pennsylvania 
supported chiefly by the Moravians, and a few free town-schools 
in New Jersey. In 1746 the Presbyterians of New Jersey 
founded the first college in the Middle colonies (now Princeton 
College). Kings (now Columbia), an Episcopal college, was 
established at New York in 1754. The next year the College 
of Pennsylvania was founded at Philadelphia. Among the 
lower classes of Maryland and Pennsylvania there was much 
ignorant superstition about ghosts, witches, spells and charms. 

236. Government. — Pennsylvania and Delaware continued 
under proprietary government until the Revolution, while New 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. I45 

York and New Jersey came directly under the rule of the 
Crown. In the first two colonies the Council was merely an 
advisory body to the governor, and so the Legislature was com- 
posed of only one house, the Assembly. In their local govern- 
ment the Middle colonies occupied a position between the 
"town" system of New England and the county system of the 
South. In Pennsylvania and Delaware, county government 
prevailed, with the distinctive feature that all county officers 
were elected by the people.^ New York and New Jersey had 
county government, and also " town meetings," the latter, how- 
ever, with less ample powers than those of New England. The 
Quakers were mild in their punishment of crime. Pennsylvania 
made murder the only capital offense, and criminals were pun- 
ished with fines and light imprisonment. In 17 18 this mild 
system was abandoned. The whipping-post and pillory were 
introduced, and the number of capital offenses was increased 
to fourteen. In New York and New Jersey, negro murderers 
were burned at the stake. 

237. Social Classes. — In the Dutch patroons New York 
possessed a more distinctly aristocratic class than any of the 
other colonies. These great landed proprietors on their vast 
estates, with their hundreds of tenants, multitudes of servants, 
and princely power lived in magnificent style. There were 
single estates that elected members of the Assembly, and these 
elections were controlled by the patroons. In the other Middle 
colonies the wealthy landed gentry constituted the highest 
class, but there were few large estates. There were many 
indented servants and a considerable number of slaves.^ With 

1 The Pennsylvania system of county government exists in most states to-day. 

2 In New York there was a deep antipathy to the negroes, which showed itself on 
two occasions in a craze of excitement not unlike the witchcraft frenzy of Massachu- 
setts. In the "negro plot" of 1741 the blacks were accused of plotting to burn the 
city of New York. Before the panic was over 13 of the unfortunate creatures were 
burned at the stake, 18 were hanged, and 17 transported, in accordance with the 
judgment of the court. 



146 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



the exception of New York, social distinctions were less marked 
in the Middle colonies than in New England or the South. 

238. Social Life. — Social life and customs were largely 
moulded by the Dutch in New York, and by the Quakers in 
the remaining Middle colonies. In New York the lords of the 
manor dressed in silks and velvets, and lived in large, hand- 




Dutch Manor House. ^ 

somely furnished houses of brick or stone. They had great 
barns, and an abundance of horses and cattle. They generally 
spent their winters in the town of New York, returning to their 
country-seats in the spring. The houses of the moderate farm- 
ers were of wood, sometimes trimmed with yellow Holland brick, 
and surmounted with a gilded weather-cock. The furniture 
was plain and solid. The sideboards were plentifully supplied 
with wine and decorated with a rack of tobacco-pipes, for the 
Dutch were great smokers. Both sexes dressed in homespun. 

1 From " Memorial History of New York." 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 



147 




riie loose, "baggy" breeches of the men and the numerous 

)etticoats of the women gave them a clumsy appearance. The 

Dutch women were notable housewives. Their 

louses were kept scrupulously clean, and their 

loors were regularly scrubbed and sanded. 

;^arpets were not used. The people were fond 

>f social pleasure, and had a great liking for 

lolidays. Christmas and New Year's were 

;reat festivals. St. Valentine's Day, Easter, 

.nd May Day were also celebrated by the 

^oung people. 
The Quakers of Pennsylvania and New Jer- 

ey were the best farmers of their time, thrifty, 

emperate, and economical. In the older settled 

:ommunities the houses were generally of brick, 

)lastered and papered, and plainly furnished. 

^^eather breeches, hempen jackets, and broad 

lats were worn by the farmers on work-days. House-raisings, 
huskings, and cider-pressings were occasions 
of social gatherings, but the ordinary daily 
**" ^^*^« life of the Quakers was sober and monotonous. 
-/ l^B Journeys were made on horseback. The 
t : !^:K> bride rode to the wedding seated on a "pil- 
lion" behind her father, and returned in the 
same way behind her husband. In New 
Jersey a cow and a side saddle constituted a 
usual dower of the average farmer's daughter. 
Philadelphia and New York were the social 
centers of the Middle colonies ; in the latter 
place, especially, society was gay and fashion- 
_ , able. 

Quaker. 
239. Summary. — In their social and political institutions, as in their 
geographical situation, the Middle colonies occupy a middle ground between 
the New England and the Southern groups. Neither trade nor agriculture 




148 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

engrossed the exclusive attention of the people. Their local government 
was a compromise between the " town " and county systems. Slaves were 
more numerous than in New England, but far less abundant than in the 
South. The Middle colonies possessed the largest foreign population. 
As a rule social distinctions were less marked than in either of the other 
sections. In the Quaker colonies neither the religious persecution of 
the New England Puritans nor the intolerance of the Virginia Churchmen 
existed. Both the Dutch and the Quakers were slow in thought and action. 
In the Revolution they furnished a conservative class that formed a valu- 
able element of strength in the struggle. 

240. Thought Questions. — Whence did the colonists borrow the idea ol 
having two branches in their colonial Legislatures .'* ^Yhat points do you 
see to admire in the town system of local government in New England ? 
In the county system of the South ? How did the methods of church govern- 
ment of the settlers of Massachusetts and of Virginia influence their local 
civil government ? Contrast the soil and climate of Massachusetts and of 
Virginia. How did these differences affect the occupations of the settlers 
in New England and the South ? their local government ? the institution 
of slavery ? If the New England Puritans had settled in Virginia, and the 
Virginia Royalists had settled in New England, would the distinctive 
features of colonial life in the two sections have been different from what 
they really were ? Was the difference in the life of the colonists due 
chiefly to local surroundings in America, or to the character and religion 
of the settlers, or to both ? Are the differences between the sections of 
our country to-day more or less marked than they were in colonial times ? 
Give the reason for your answer. What causes to-day tend to give 
uniformity to the manners and customs of the people in all parts of the 
United States ? What causes tend to difference .'' In what particular 
have we made the greatest improvement since colonial times ? 

Topical Analysis (Life in the Colonies). 
206. Introductory : Close of an Era. 



GENERAL VIEW 

OF THE 

COLONIES. 



107. Territorial [ Formation of colonies. 
limit*? ' Situation of settlements. 

L Region west of the AUeghanies. 
r Growth. 

o _. , . Total population in 1760. 

JoS. Population. -^ ^^ ,.^ ^ , . 

1 The different colonies. 

(^ Towns and cities. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 



149 



GENERAL VIEW 

OF THE 

COLONIES 

(continued). 



C The slave trade. 
209. Slavery. ■{ The Northern colonies. 
[ The Southern colonies. 
f Republican colonies. 
■< 210. Government. <( Proprietary colonies, 
i^ Royal colonies. 

( Differences. 
Colonies Classified. -{ Resemblance. 
(^ Three groups. 

Farming. 

Fisheries. 

Shipbuilding. 

Commerce. 

Handicrafts. 



NEW ENGLAND 
COLONIES. 



Occupations of the 
People. 



r Origin. 

213. Towns. -=( Limits. 

(^ Government. 

r Puritan church. 

. J Intolerance. 

° ' j Ministers. 

L Church services. 

J Duration. 

* \ Observance. 

( Capital offenses. 

* \ Modes of punishment. 

f Basis. 

Grades of Society. -^ Classes. 

[ Distinctions. 

^ f Of the men. 

Dress. < „ , ^, 

l^ Of the women. 

f Social pleasures. 

Social Life. ^ Holidays. 

[ Marriages and funerals. 

_ , , . f Schools. 

220. Education. ^ ^ ,, 

(^ Colleges. 

r First printing press. 

First newspaper. 

221. Literature. < . , 

j Almanacs. 

t Character of literature. 



214. 



215. 



216. 



217. 



218. 



219. 



ISO 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



223. Occupations. 



225 



r 

226. Slavery. -{ 

[ 



227. Government. 



SOUTHERN 
COLONIES. 



MIDDLE 
COLONIES. 



233 



Inducements to agriculture. 
Other occupations. 

f In South Carolina and Georgia. 
224. Principal Crops. <j In Virginia and North Carolina. 
(^ In Maryland. 
f The planter his own merchant. 
Absence of J County seats. 
Towns, j " Paper towns." 

L Principal towns in the South. 
Profitableness. 
Number of slaves, 
Whitefield's argument. 
Relation between master and slave. 
Royal colonies. 
Influence of land-owners. 
The county. 
Trial of offenses. 
Modes of punishment. 
Large planters. 
Small planters. 
Traders and laborers. 
Slaves. 
Court days. 
The colonial capitals. 
Marriages. 

The Established Church. 
Dissenting sects. 
Intolerance, 
t Clergymen. 

Scarcity of schools. 
William and Mary College. 
f Prohibition of printing. 
Literature. ^ Books. 

(^ Character of literature. 

Mixed population. 
Principal occupations. 
Principal productions. 
Leading export. 
Other occupations. 



228. Society. < 



229. Religion. 



230. Education. 



231 



Nationality and 
Occupations. 



LIFE IN THE COLONIES. 



151 



MIDDLE 
COLONIES 

{continued). 



237- 



^ Toleration. 
, J Intolerance in New York. 
* * ] Ministers. 

L Leading denominations. 
Schools and colleges. 
Superstitions. 

f Pennsylvania and Delaware. 
New York and New Jersey. 



234- 



235. Education. 



Government. -^ 



Local government. 
L Punishment of crime. 



f Patroons of New York. 
Social Classes. ^ Land-owners of other colonies. 
[ Social distinctions. 

00. • , -r .^ ( The Dutch of New York. 
238. Social Life. 



The Quakers of Pa. and New Jersey, 



ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



I. WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 

I. Causes leading to the War, 1760-74. 

II. Beginnings of the War, April, 177 5- July, 1776. 

I. In Massachusetts. ^ ,,- , . . , ^ 

j^ ^ ^^^ ! N> ashington appointed Commander-in- 

I Chief ; Declaration of Independence. 



In Canada. 



III. Struggle for the Middle States, July, 1776-July, 177S. 

1. Campaigns around New York City.^ 

2. Campaigns in northern New York. |> Treaty with France. 

3. Campaigns around Philadelphia. J 

IV. War beyond the Frontiers, 177S-9. 

1. West of the Alleghanies. 

2. On the Ocean. 

V. War in the South, 177S-S1. 

1. In Georgia and the Carolinas. ) Arnold's Treason. 

2. In Virginia. j Treaty of Peace with Great Britain. 



I. CAUSES LEADING TO THE REVOLUTION. 

241. Old Grievances. — As a rule, the English kings were 
careless of the rights of their American subjects. America 
was valued chiefly as a means to pay royal debts by grants 
of territory, or to reward court favorites by appointments to 
colonial offices. The royal governors frequently lacked both 
character and ability, and often provoked the people to resist- 
ance. When the t)Tanny of Governor Nicholson became un- 
bearable to the Virginians, the king at last graciously consented 
to transfer him to another colony, and he became in turn gov- 
ernor of Maryland and of Carolina. Every colony, except Penn- 
sylvania and Delaware, was at some period in its history the 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 53 

victim of incompetent governors. But the victories won by 
English and colonial troops in the French and Indian War had 
caused old grievances to be forgotten and good feeling to pre- 
vail between the colonies and the mother-country. It was the 
course of the king and Parliament subsequent to 1760, in 
attempting to enforce certain old laws and in passing new ones 
distasteful to the colonists, that hurried on the Revolution. 

242. Laws of Trade and Navigation. — It was commonly 
believed in England that British traders and manufacturers 
should not only be protected from competition in the colonies, 
but that they should derive an actual profit from colonial trade. 
To this end, more than one hundred years before the Revolu- 
tion, Parliament had begun to pass laws to regulate shipping, 
trade, and manufactures in the colonies. These laws provided 
among other things (i) that no foreign vessel, except British, 
should carry goods to or bring them from the colonies ; (2) that 
certain colonial products, such as tobacco, sugar, and cotton, 
should not be exported to any part of the world save to Great 
Britain or her colonies ; (3) that all European products needed 
by the colonists should be purchased in England and imported 
in English ships ; (4) that no articles made in England should 
be manufactured in the colonies. The object of these laws 
was partly to injure England's rivals (especially the Dutch, who 
at that time did most of the carrying trade of the world), but 
chiefly to enrich British merchants and manufacturers at the 
expense of the American colonists. 

243. The Laws Evaded. — The disastrous effect of such 
laws upon the prosperity of the colonies, if strictly enforced, 
can be readily imagined. For nearly one hundred years the 
colonists ignored or evaded them. The numerous harbors on 
the American coast made it easy for smugglers ^ to avoid the 

1 To smuggle goods is to import them without papng the import tax required by 
law. 



154 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



king's officers. When offenders were arrested sympathizing 
juries refused to convict them, and even the judges appointed 
by the king were disposed to be lenient, remembering that their 
salaries depended upon the vote of colonial Assemblies. The 
pressure of the French wars prevented the British government 
from turnins: its attention to the enforcement of the law. 



244. Efforts to Enforce the Navigation Laws. — When the 
French power in America was overthrown, England was free to 
enforce her hated navigation laws. Colonial juries having re- 
fused to punish smugglers, 
" Admiralty Courts " were 
established in the colonies, 
with authority to try offend- 
ers without juries. A still 
more formidable measure 
was the issuance of "writs of 
assistance" (1761). These 
were general warrants good 
for an indefinite time, author- 
izing officers to search all 
suspected places at any hour 
of the day for goods sup- 
posed to have been imported 
contrary to law. The colonists, believing the navigation 
laws unjust, were ready to oppose any effective measures 
for enforcing them. Moreover, it was held that these new 
measures were violations of the British Constitution, which al- 
lowed to every citizen the right of trial by jury, and declared 
his house should be secure against unreasonable search. 
James Otis resigned his position as advocate-general of Massa- 
chusetts to avoid supporting the writs. The Boston merchants 
appealed to the courts to declare the writs illegal, and employed 
Otis as their counsel The case was decided against them, yet 




James Otis. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 55 

the powerful arguments of Otis exerted a wide influence in 
strengthening the opposition of the people. 

245. The << Parson's Case.'* — While the admiralty courts 
and the writs of assistance were causing dissatisfaction and 
resistance in the commercial colonies, an event took place in 
Virginia which weakened the authority of the king in that loyal 
colony. The annual salary of each minister of the Established 
Church in Virginia was fixed by law at 16,000 pounds of tobacco, 
and this amount was raised by taxation. One year, when there 
was a failure of the tobacco crop, the Virginia Assembly passed 
a law allowing the salaries of ministers to be paid in money at 
the rate of twopence for each 
pound of tobacco due. As 
this sum was far below the 
market value of tobacco the 
clergy objected, and appealed 
to the king. The result was 
the king annulled or set aside 
the "two-penny act" of the 
Assembly. The ministers 
thereupon brought suits in 
their respective counties to 
recover the difference in salary 

- - -^ Patrick Henry. 

due them. In one of the coun- 
ties Patrick Henry, an obscure young lawyer, represented the tax- 
payers. In a speech of surprising eloquence, he denounced the 
king as a tyrant for setting aside a good law, and declared that 
the Assembly of Virginia " was the only authority for the laws 
of the colony." His words were cheered by the crowd present, 
and the jury awarded the sum of one penny to the clergyman 
who brought this suit, instead of the large amount demanded by 
him. In all parts of Virginia, Henry's defiance of the king was 
discussed, some condemning it as treason, others approving it. 




156 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

246. The Colonies to be Taxed. — The expenses of the 
French wars had brought an enormous debt upon England. 
As the wars had been waged partly in the interest of the colo- 
nies, England claimed that the colonies should help to pay the 
cost. Accordingly, the British Parliament decided to go a step 
further than it had ever gone before ; it determined to raise a 
revenue from the colonies by taxation. An old law, placing a 
duty on sugar and molasses, was revived, and the Stamp Act 
was passed (1765), requiring government stamps to be placed 
on all contracts, notes, and legal documents. These stamps 
were to be sold by British officials, and from this source a large 
revenue was expected. 

247. Feeling of the Americans. — The proposed taxation 
of Americans by the British Parliament awakened a greater 
storm than did the enforcement of the navigation laws. Cen- 
turies before this, the people of England had taken away from 
their king the power to tax them, and had declared that in 
England taxes could be imposed only by the representatives 
elected by the people. In accordance with this principle, the 
American colonists claimed they could be taxed only by their 
colonial Assemblies. They elected no representatives to Par- 
liament ; that body, therefore, had no right to tax them. More- 
over, inasmuch as their territory, when first discovered, was con- 
sidered to belong to the king, and as they had obtained their 
title to the soil from the king, they held that they were subject 
to the king alone, and not to Parliament. As to the expenses 
of the French wars, the colonists held that they had already 
paid their share in the soldiers and supplies they had fur- 
nished. 

248. The British Parliament. — The Parliament which pro- 
posed to tax the American colonists did not truly represent the 
people of England. In the United States to-day, we know that 
members of Congress are elected from districts of nearly equal 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 



157 



population ; and as population increases much more rapidly in 
some parts of the country than in others, we rearrange our rep- 
resentative districts every ten years in order to prevent unfair- 
ness in representation. In England, however, members of 
Parliament had been originally elected from " shires " or 
"boroughs," as such, and without reference to population. 
At the time of George III. these parliamentary districts, never 
regular, had not been changed for 200 years. As a conse- 
quence, cities like Manchester and Birmingham, which had 
sprung up in recent years, had no representatives, while other 
districts, whose population had decreased to hardly a dozen 
inhabitants, were yet allowed to choose members of Parlia- 
ment. The votes in these " rotten boroughs " were controlled 
by the king and a few wealthy families. The people of the 
unrepresented cities had begun to complain of their unjust 
treatment, and they sympathized with the Americans in their 
cry of "no taxation without representation." 



249. Resistance to the Stamp Act. — News of the passage 
of the Stamp Act reached America in the spring of 1765. 
From Virginia came the first response. Her Assembly passed 
a series of resolutions introduced by the great orator, Patrick 



Henry, and supported by his matchless flifiim!i!ii!iiti|iiiiiL'iiiiiiiii'iimr'»ii'i''iiirmii'iiiiff'iii«fflmiifi»«ii|i 
eloquence, declaring that " the Assembly 
of this colony have the only and sole ex- 
clusive right to levy taxes upon the in- 
habitants." John Ashe, speaker of. the 
North Carolina Assembly, declared to the 
royal governor that in his colony the 
Stamp Act "would be resisted to blood," 
whereupon the governor promptly dis- 
solved the Assembly. The Massachusetts 
Assembly resolved that their courts should recognize unstamped 
documents, and sent a circular to the other colonies recom- 




itish Stamp. 



158 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

mending that a congress of delegates from all the colonies be 
held in New York to consider common grievances. In some 
places the feeling of opposition was so strong that mobs were 
formed and deeds of cruelty and lawlessness enacted.-^ Every- 
where stamp agents were forced to resign, and the stamps were 
either destroyed or sent back to England. 

250. The Stamp Act Congress. — This Congress, proposed 
by Massachusetts and seconded by South Carolina, met in 
New York just before the Stamp Act was to go into effect 
(October, 1765). Twenty-eight delegates were present, repre- 
senting nine colonies. Four colonies were unrepresented, chiefly 
through opposition of their royal governors and not through 
lack of interest in the cause. Petitions to the king and 
Parliament ^ were prepared and also a Declaration of Rights, 
asserting that the colonies should be free from all taxes not 
imposed with their own consent. 

251. The Stamp Act Repealed. — It soon became evident 
to the British ministry that to enforce the Stamp Act an army 
must be used, and they were unwilling to go so far. The 
colonies, moreover, were not without sympathizers in England. 
When Parliament met in 1766, a petition against the Stamp 
Act was presented by the London merchants trading with 
America. William Pitt, now old and suffering with disease, 
appeared in the House of Commons on crutches, and fiercely 
opposed the policy of the British government. "I rejoice 
that America has resisted," said he. "If her people had sub- 
mitted, they would have voluntarily become slaves. My 
opinion is that the Stamp Act should be repealed, absolutely, 

1 In Boston the home of Chief-Justice Hutchison was burned by a mob, the Justice 
and his family barely escaping. In New York a torch-light procession dragged 
through the streets the governor's chariot bearing images of the governor and the 
devil, and finally made a bonfire of the chariot. 

2 Gadsden, of South CaroUna, objected to sending petitions to Parliament, because 
thereby its authority would be acknowledged. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 59 

totally, immediately." The result was the repeal of the Stamp 
Act before it had been in operation six months. At the same 
time a resolution was passed declaring that Parliament had the 
right to tax the colonies in all cases. Thus the principle of 
taxation without representation was still maintained. 

252. The Townshend Acts. — The next year two laws 
known as the Townshend Acts (from their author, Charles 
Townshend) were passed. The first provided for the stricter 
execution of the laws of trade ; the second, for imposing a tax 
on glass, paper, and tea. Again bitter opposition was aroused, 
especially in the commercial colonies. The Massachusetts 
Assembly sent a circular to the various colonies censuring the 
recent acts of the British government in reference to trade and 
taxation. The king ordered the Assembly, under penalty of 
being instantly dissolved, to rescind this circular. By a vote 
of ninety-two to seventeen the Massachusetts Assembly refused 
to obey, thus deliberately defying the authority of the king. 
The Virginia Assembly the next year endorsed the Massa- 
chusetts circular and sent copies of her resolutions of approval 
to all the other colonies. 

253. The Mutiny Act and the Boston Massacre. — Several 
regiments of British troops were stationed in New York and 
Boston to enforce the unpopular laws. By the Mutiny Act 
of 1765 the colonies were required to furnish food and quarters 
for the soldiers. The New York Assembly having failed to 
provide fully for the troops. Parliament suspended its powers 
of legislation. All the colonies looked upon this act of Parlia- 
ment as a serious invasion of their rights. Boston flatly refus- 
ing to provide shelter for the soldiers, they were compelled to 
rent quarters at the expense of the Crown. There were 
frequent quarrels between the troops and the populace. 
Finally a collision occurred in which a squad of soldiers fired 
upon a crowd of citizens, killing three persons and wounding 



l60 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

several others^ (1770). This affair, known as the "Boston 
Massacre," increased the excitement all over the country. 

254. The Battle of Alamance. — In North Carolina exces- 
sive fees had been collected by the officers of the royal 
governor, and the taxes had been squandered. The people of 
the western counties of the colony organized to resist the pay- 
ment of such taxes as were not "agreeable to law, and applied 
to the purposes therein mentioned." In 177 1, at Alamance, 
near the head-waters of the Cape Fear River, a battle took 
place between the tax-payers and the governor's troops. The 
rebels were beaten, a large number were killed, and several of 
the captured were hanged as traitors. This was the first blood 
shed in America in resistance to unjust British taxation. 

255. The Tax on Tea. — The British government decided 
to remove all taxes save that on tea. The tea tax was retained 
to show the colonists that the right to tax them was still main- 
tained. Thereupon the Americans refused to buy tea shipped 
from England, and either drank none at all, or smuggled it 
from Holland. In order to induce them to use this taxed tea, 
it was provided that on all tea shipped from England to the 
colonies the owners should have refunded to them the duty 
paid when first imported into England from China. By this 
means the tea could be sold to the colonists, with the American 
duty added, cheaper than it could be purchased elsewhere. 
But the colonists refused to be caught in the king's trap. It 
was not the payment of a few pence, but the principle of 
"taxation without representation" that they opposed. From 
Massachusetts to Georgia the people showed their indignation. 
The merchants of Philadelphia, New York, and Charleston, to 
whom the first shiploads of tea under the act were consigned, 
agreed not to receive it. As the Boston tea merchants 



1 The soldiers were tried for murder. Two were convicted of manslaughter, the 
rest were acquitted. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 



I6 



refused to join in this agreement, the eyes of the whole 
country were turned to that city to see what course the people 
would take. When the first three shiploads of tea arrived at 
that port, fifty men disguised as Indians boarded the vessels, 
cut open the chests of tea and emptied them into the harbor. 

256. Punishment of Boston. — The British government 
decided that severe punishment should be inflicted upon 




Throwing the Tea Overboard. (An old Print.) 



Boston and the colony of Massachusetts for the destruction of 
the tea. Parliament at once passed an act known as the 
Boston Port Bill, by which no ships were allowed to leave or 
enter the port of Boston, until the town should pay for the tea 
destroyed. This put a stop to all commerce, and threatened 
the people with financial ruin. By another act, the charter of 
Massachusetts was annulled, the appointment of nearly all the 



1 62 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

officers was vested in the king, and the most important powers 
of the town meetings were taken away. 

257. First Continental Congress.^ —From all the colonies 
came expressions of sympathy for the people of Boston, who 
were regarded as sufferers in a common cause. Georgia and 
South Carolina sent hundreds of barrels of rice to feed the 
hungry patriots. The Virginia Assembly set apart the first 
day of June (^when the Boston Port Bill was to go into effect) 
as a day of "fasting, humiliation, and prayer." For this, the 
governor at once dissolved the Assembly, but the members 
met the next day at Raleigh Tavern and proposed a general 
congress of the colonies. A few days later, but before the 
news from Virginia had reached them, the Massachusetts 
Assembly made a similar proposition. The other colonies 
accepted the invitation of Virginia and Massachusetts, Georgia 
alone being prevented from doing so by the efforts of her 
royal governor. On September 5, 1774, the delegates met 
in Philadelphia. The Congress approved the resistance of 
Massachusetts to the despotic acts of Parliament, demanded a 
repeal of the laws invading their rights, and recommended 
commercial non-intercourse with Great Britain. They also 
prepared addresses to the king and people of Great Britain 
and fixed the loth day of May following for a second congress. 

258. Summary of Causes of Revolution. — In their gifts of territory 
as well as in their appointments of colonial governors, the British 
sovereigns were careless of the welfare of their American subjects. Parlia- 
ment considered the colonies as existing solely for the benetit of the com- 
merce and manufactures of Great Britain, and passed navigation la^^■s in 
accordance with this idea. For years these laws were evaded, but at the 
close of the French \Vars. England determined to enforce them and also 
to tax the colonists. The Americans declared there should be no taxation 
without representation. Their determined resistance to the Stamp Act 

^ Called "Continental" Congress to distinguish it from "Provincial" Congress, a 
name applied to the revolutionary Legislatures of several of the colonies. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 163 

caused its repeal, but other taxes were soon afterward imposed. In a 
quarrel between British troops and citizens of Boston the troops fired into 
the crowd, killing several persons (1770). The first bloodshed in resistance 
to unjust taxation occurred at Alamance, North Carolina, 177 1. Deter- 
mined not to pay the tax on tea, colonial merchants refused to receive it, 
and at Boston three shiploads were thrown into the sea. England having 
taken steps to punish Boston, all the colonies showed their sympathy. A 
congress of delegates from twelve colonies met in Philadelphia, 1774, 
approved the resistance of Massachusetts, and demanded the repeal of the 
unjust laws. 

259. Thought Questions. — Show how each of the following causes 
influenced the separation between the colonies and the mother country : 
(1) the French wars; {2) overthrow of the French power in America; 
(3) conduct of the king of England ; (4) feeling of British merchants toward 
the colonists ; (5) action of Parliament ; (6) course of royal governors. Is 
there a stamp act in force in the United States to-day .-* Why is it not 
resisted ? Wliy were the writs of assistance so much more objectionable 
than our modern search-warrants, which authorize a sheriff to enter a 
citizen's house .'' What excuse had the British government for taxing the 
colonists ? How might Great Britain have imposed a tax with the consent 
of the Americans ? Why was she not willing to do this ? What English- 
men sympathized with the Americans in their resistance.^ How do you 
suppose the owners of the tea regarded the destruction of their property by 
the men of Boston.^ What was the justification of the act ? What colo- 
nies took the lead in resistance to the British government ? Name the 
prominent leaders in the different colonies. 

n. BEGDOraiGS OF THE WAR. 

(April, 1775 -July, 1776.) 

260. Lexington and Concord. — General Gage, who was 
stationed at Boston with 3,000 British troops, was appointed 
by the king governor of Massachusetts. The colonial As- 
sembly met in defiance of the new governor's proclamation, 
and voted to equip 12,000 men and provide supplies for them. 
General Gage fortified Boston Neck and seized the military 
stores in the neighborhood. Leanring that the colonists had 
other stores at Concord, eighteen miles from Boston, he sent 
eight hundred men by night to destroy them, ordering them to 



1 64 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Stop at Lexington and arrest the patriot leaders, Hancock and 
Adams. His plan, however, was discovered, and Paul Revere, 
"all booted and spurred,"' was ready to spread the alarm. 

The moment the British 
troops started, he sprang 
into his saddle and dashed 
madly through the neigh- 
boring villages on his 
famous midnight ride, to 
arouse the people. Thus 
warning was given, and 
when the troops reached 
Lexington at sunrise, April 19th, tliey found about fifty citizens 
drawn up on the village green. " Disperse, ye villains ! " shouted 
Major Pitcairn, the British leader. The patriots refused to 




Boston, 
Lexington 

and 
Bunker Hil 




Lexington Corr,n:on 



obey, and a skirmish followed in which the Americans were 
compelled to retreat with the loss of eight killed and several 
wounded. Bv the time the British reached Concord, most of the 



1 66 



HISTORY OF OUR COUXTRY 



stores had been concealed. They hastily destroyed all they 
could find, and after another skirmish at Concord Bridge, began 
the return march to Boston. The whole country was now aroused. 
From every village and farm militiamen came pouring in until 
the roadside fairly swarmed with marksmen. An incessant 
and deadly tire was kept up upon the weary British troops. 
The retreat became more and more disorderly, and had not 
reenforcements come out from Boston to meet them, it is 
probable that the whole force would have been killed or 
captured. The total loss of the British was two hundred and 
seventy-three : of the Americans, ninety-three. The British 
had not gained the object of their expedition, while their 
troops had barely escaped capture. 



261. Effect of the News ; the Mecklenburg Declaration.— 
The news that British regulars had been chased by American 
••peasants" caused great mortification in England. The gov- 
ernment became more fixed in 



its determination to crush the 
spirit of resistance in the col- 
onies. In America the news 
was hailed with joy. Ever}- 
one realized that war had be- 
gun. From Connecticut, New 
Hampshire, and Rhode Island 
troops hurried to join the men 
of Massachusetts, who were 
besieging the British in Boston. 
The important forts Ticonde- 
roga and Crown Point, on Lake 
Champlain. were surprised and 
captured by Vermont companies. The Middle and Soutliern 
colonies at once took steps to organize and train their militia. 
A part}' of Georgians seized the royal powder magazine at 




Minute-Man. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 



167 



Savannah, and sent five hundred pounds of the captured powder 
to the patriots at Boston. 

The citizens of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, met in 
the month of May and adopted tlie famous Mecklenburg Dec- 
laration of Independence, renouncing the authority of all crown 
officers in America, declaring that the Continental Congress 
and the Legislatures of the several colonies possessed all the 
powers of government, and asserting that their own county offi- 
cers should act independently of the British Crown. This was 
more than a year before the independence of the united colonies 
was declared. 



262. Bunker Hill. — The British sent fresh troops to Bos- 
ton, until their forces numbered ten thousand men. Sixteen 
thousand Xew England militia had 
gathered just outside the city. In order 
to compel the British to leave, the colo- 
nists determined to fortify Bunker Hill on 
Charlestown peninsula, an eminence over- 
looking Boston. The troops sent out by 
night to execute this movement fortified 
Breed's Hill instead, because nearer the 
city. \\*hen the British awoke and saw 
the breastworks of the Americans on tlie 
hill within easy cannon shot, they realized 
they must either abandon the city or 
capture the tlireatening fortifications. 
On the 17th of June the British troops 
crossed over to Charlestown, set fire to 
the village and began the ascent of the 
coveted hill. The colonists watched in 
silence until tlie advancing column was within fift}^ yards, then 
opened fire with such deadly effect that the British troops broke 
and fied down the hill. A second attempt to storm the breast- 




Bunker Hill Monument. 



1 68 * HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

works had a like disastrous result ; a third assault was success- 
ful. The ammunition of the Americans had given out, and 
they slowly retreated from Charlestown peninsula with a loss 
of about four hundred and fifty. The British lost over one 
thousand killed and wounded. 

263. Second Continental Congress. — Three weeks after the 
battle of Lexington the second Continental Congress met at 
Philadelphia. John Hancock, of Massachusetts, was chosen 
president of the Congress, to succeed Peyton Randolph, of 
Virginia, who had been called home. While not yet ready for 
independence. Congress determined to make united resistance 
to British oppression. They voted to raise a "continental 
army" of twenty thousand, whose expenses were to be appor- 
tioned to the several colonies. The New England troops 
around Boston were to be adopted as the nucleus of the army. 
One of the most important acts of Congress was the selection 
of a commander-in-chief. George Washington, of Virginia, by 
his skillful management of the colonial troops in Braddock's 
disastrous expedition in the French and Indian war, and by the 
ability he displayed in the subsequent capture of Fort Du- 
quesne, had become the most prominent American soldier. At 
the suggestion of John Adams, he was unanimously chosen to 
command the American forces (June 19, two days after the 
battle of Bunker Hill). 

264. Washington Takes Command. — It was just two weeks 
after the battle of Bunker Hill that Washington reached the 
vicinity of Boston, and took command of the patriot army. The 
men were undisciplined, poorly supplied with guns and ammu- 
nition, enlisted for short periods of time, and dependent for 
support upon their various local authorities. Besides all these 
difficulties, the commander-in-chief had no organized central 
government to rely on. Undaunted, he began at once the task 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 



169 





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Washington EInn (under which Washington 
took Connnnand). 



of organizing, drilling, and equipping the troops. Eight months 
were spent by Washington in this work and in strengthening 
the fortifications around 
Boston, while thoughtless 
critics were censuring him 
for his apparent inactivity. 

265. Expedition against 
Canada. — An expedition 
against Canada was decided 
upon for the double pur- 
pose of preventing an attack 
from that quarter and of 
inducing the Canadians to 
join their southern neigh- 
bors against the British. 
A thousand men under 
Colonel Benedict Arnold 
left Washington's army, and advanced by way of the Kennebec 
River and the Maine woods. After a journey of frightful 
struggle with starvation, cold, and fatigue, they were joined 
by a force under General Montgomery, who had traveled due 
north from Ticonderoga by the Lake Champlain route. Mon- 
treal was captured by Montgomery, and the combined forces, 
now numbering hardly twelve hundred men, attacked Quebec. 
Montgomery was killed in the assault, and Arnold was desper- 
ately wounded. Part of the attacking force was captured ; the 
rest withdrew. Soon afterward Montreal was re-taken by 
the British, and the remnant of the colonial army was driven 
from Canada. Thus ended in disastrous failure the Canada 
expedition. 

266. Evacuation of Boston. — Dorchester Heights overlook 
Boston from the south, and command the city even more effec- 
tually than does Bunker Hill. Having at last, in the spring of 



I/O HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

1776, received some cannon heavy enough for his purpose, 
Washington secretly fortified these heights. The British, re- 
membering the lesson of Bunker Hill, refrained from attacking 
the fortifications, and being unable to hold the city longer, sailed 
away to Halifax, Nova Scotia (March 17). By this brilliant 
achievement of Washington, many valuable military stores fell 
into the hands of the American army, and New England was 
freed from British troops for the first time in six years. 

267. The King's Authority Overthrown; Fighting in Vir- 
ginia and North Carolina. — One by one the royal governors 
fled from the country, and the people proceeded to choose their 
successors and organize governments similar to the state gov- 
ernments of to-day. The governors of Georgia and New Jer- 
sey, having failed to resign their ofiices, were arrested and kept 
under guard. Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, seized a 
quantity of powder at Williamsburg and tried to arm the slaves, 
promising freedom to those who would join him. His force 
was beaten by the Virginians near Norfolk, and he sought 
refuge in an English ship. He afterward avenged himself by 
setting fire to Norfolk. In North Carolina a battle occurred at 
Moore's Creek (February 1776), in which one thousand militia- 
men completely routed a force of sixteen hundred Tories, who 
were on their way to the coast to cooperate with an expected 
British fleet. This battle aroused the Carolinians as Lexington 
did the New Englanders. Ten thousand men quickly as- 
sembled to resist the landing of the British. 

268. Attack on the Carolina Coast. — The British were led 
to believe that with the aid of Tory sympathizers in the colony, 
North Carolina could be easily conquered, and thus the South- 
ern colonies- could be cut in two. Several vessels under Sir 
Henry Clinton were sent from Boston to the North Carolina 
coast, where they were to cooperate with the fleet under Ad- 
miral Parker, which had sailed from Ireland. Storms delayed 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 



171 



Parker's fleet, and the bold spirit of the North Carolina patriots 
deterred Clinton from attempting a landing (§ 267). The 
combined British fleet then sailed south with the intention of 
taking Charleston, the largest city in the South. The Conti- 
nental Congress sent General Charles Lee with a force of Vir- 
ginians and North Carolinians to relieve the town. 

269. Battle of Fort Moultrie. — On an island just outside 
Charleston harbor, Colonel Moultrie had thrown up a fortifica- 
tion of palmetto logs (afterward called Fort Moultrie). The 
British fleet opened 
a heavy fire upon 
this fort (June 28). 
Meanwhile Clinton 
landed some troops 
on the east end of 
the island, so as to 
attack the fort on 
land and sea at the 
same time. The 
fire from the British 
guns was incessant, 
but their balls either 
flew above the low 
fortifications or 
sank harmlessly 
into its spongy pal- 
metto walls. The 
Americans fired less 
frequently, but their well-aimed shots proved so destructive to 
the British forces that they withdrew from the attack with a loss 
of life six times as great as that of their opponents.^ After 

1 In the midst of the battle, the flag which floated over the smoking guns of the 
fort suddenly disappeared from view. A British shot had broken the flagstaff, and 
it fell outside the walls. While the balls were flying thickest a brave young officer, 




Jasper replacing the Flag at Fort Moultrie. 



172 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



spending three weeks repairing his damaged ships, Parker 
sailed away to New York. 

270. Independence Declared. — In the early spring of 
1776, soon after the battle of Moore's Creek, North Carolina 
authorized her delegates in Congress to concur with delegates 
from other colonies in declaring independence. In May, Massa- 
chusetts and Virginia separately renounced their dependence 
on Great Britain. At the same time Virginia went a step fur- 
ther and instructed her delegates to propose to Congress " to 
declare the United Colonies free and independent States." In 

obedience to these instruc- 
tions, on the 8th of June 
Richard Henry Lee, of Vir- 
ginia, moved "that these 
United Colonies are, and of 
right ought to be, free and 
independent States." This 
motion was seconded by John 
Adams, of Massachusetts. 
After warm discussion the 
question was postponed until 
July I, in order that express in- 
structions might be obtained 
from all the colonies. By that time every colony except New 
York had approved the step proposed, and on July 4 Congress 
unanimously adopted a formal Declaration of Independence. 
The delegates from New York refrained from voting ; but five 
days later New York formally ratified the Declaration, and her 
delegates then signed it. The news of the adoption of the 
Declaration, which was received at the same time as that of 
the brilliant success at Fort Moultrie, created the wildest joy 




^- w>- 



The Old State House, Philadelphia, in which 

the Declaration of Independence was 

adopted and the Constitution of 

the United States franned. 



Sergeant Jasper, sprang over the defenses, in plain view of the enemy, seized the 
flag, and planted it again on the walls of the fort. 



WAR OF lUV KKVOl.l' riON. 



/ 



ihrouiihout the country. Evervwhoro there were torch-light 
processions, ringing of bells, tiring of guns, and other signs of 
delight and approval. 

271. The Declaration. - The Oeclaration was written by 
Thomas JetYerson, of \'irginia, chairman of a committee of 
C'ongress, of which John Adams and Benjamin Franklin were 
members. It contains among other statements the following : 

\\'hon. in the course of hunuiu events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissv">lve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and 
equal station to which the la\\-s of nature and of nature's God entitle them, 
a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should 
declare the causes which impel thera to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: — That all men are created 
equal : that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriv- 
ing their just powers from the coi>sent of the governed ; that, whenever 
any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right 
of the people to ;Uter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government. 
. . . The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated 
injuries and usurpations. . . . To prove this, let facts be submitted to a 
candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
for the public good. . . . 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with 
manly tirmness. his invasions on the rights of the people. . . . 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction [Parliament] 
foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his 
assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; ... 

For cutting off our tmde with all parts of the world ; 

For imposing taxes on us ^\-ithout our consent ; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; . . . 

For taking away our charters ; . . . 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves iiwested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. . . . 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. . . . 



1/4 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Our British brethren, . . . too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and 
consanguinity. We must, therefore, . . . hold them, as we hold the rest 
of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, . . . do, in the name and by the authority of the good 
people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united 
Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that 
they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all 
political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and 
ought to be, totally dissolved. . . . And, for the support of this declaration, 
with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually 
pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

272. The New Government. — At the same time that the 
committee was appointed to draw up the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, another committee was named to prepare a plan of 
government. Twelve days after the adoption of the Declara- 
tion, this second committee submitted to Congress the first 
Constitution of the United States, entitled, " Articles of Con- 
federation and Perpetual Union between the States." It was 
adopted by Congress and then submitted to the several states 
for their ratification. In the year 1779 all the states had 
adopted the articles save Maryland, and Congress proceeded 
to exercise the powers thereby conferred. (See § 328.) 

273. Summary of Beginnings of the War. — The war began in Massa- 
chusetts with the fight at Lexington (April 19, 1775), followed a month 
later by that of Bunker Hill, both of which had the effect of victories for 
the Americans. The second Continental Congress determined upon united 
resistance, and appointed Washington commander-in-chief of the Conti- 
nental army. In the spring of 1776 Washington compelled the British to 
evacuate Boston. An expedition against Canada ended in failure. A 
party of militia gained a victory at Moore's Creek, North Carolina, over a 
large force of Tories. A British attack on Fort Moultrie, South Caro- 
lina, was defeated. On July 4, 1776, Congress declared the independence 
of the colonies, and steps were taken to form a new government. 

274. Thought Questions. — How did it happen that the war began in 
Massachusetts rather than in some other colony ? Why did not the battle 
of Alamance have such an immediate and widespread effect as the battle 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1/5 

of Lexington ? Give instances of resistance to British tyranny in North 
Carolina ; in Massachusetts ; in Virginia ; in Georgia ; in New Jersey. 
Aside from Washington's preeminent fitness for the position of commander- 
in-chief, why was the selection of a Virginian or a Southerner desirable ? 
What were the causes of the failure of the Canada expedition ? How do 
you account for the refusal of the Canadians to join the colonies in resist- 
ance to Great Britain ? If the British had succeeded at Fort Moultrie, 
what change in the theatre of war would probably have occurred? Which 
was the greater rebel, Washington or Bacon ? What punishment were the 
American leaders liable to receive in case of the failure of their cause ? 
What are "unalienable" rights? Name those mentioned in the Declara- 
tion of Independence. When, according to the Declaration, may a people 
alter or abolish their form of government? Which "injuries and usurpa- 
tions " enumerated in the Declaration were most galling to the colonists ? 
What was the full title of the first constitution of the United States ? 
What does this title suggest to have been the leading idea of the framers 
of the Articles ? What previous confederation had existed among the 
colonies ? 

m. STRUGGLE FOR THE MIDDLE STATES. 

(July 1776-July 1778.) 

275. The Plan of the British. — Great Britain now began 
active operations for the subjugation of her rebellious colonies. 
A powerful fleet under Admiral Howe was sent from England 
with an army of trained soldiers, including a strong force of 
hired German troops.^ The plan of the British was to attack 
our coast-line in the center, and by forcibly occupying one oi 
more of the Middle States to cut off New England from the 
South. Accordingly, for the next two years (July, 1776, to 
July, 1778) we shall find the war to consist mainly of a great 
struggle for the possession of the Hudson and Delaware rivers. 
The military events may be grouped under three heads : (i) 
Campaigns around New York City ; (2) Campaigns in northern 
and central New York ; (3) Campaigns around Philadelphia. 

1 These German troops were Hessians, from the district of Hesse-Cassel. The 
employment of foreign hirelings to subdue British-born subjects became a leading 
cause of American hatred for the mother-country. 



i;6 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 




7. CAMPAIGI^S AKOl'XP ^'EW rOKXT CITY. 

276. Battle of Long Island. — In accordance with the plan 
just mentioned. Xew York was the first point of arrack bv the 
British. Washington suspecting their inten- 
tion hastened from Boston to oppose them. 
In order to defend the city of Xew York 
and its approaches, he was compelled to 
scatter his forces over a line of twent)* miles. 
Abouthalf of his army, under General Putnam, 
was stationed on Long Island at Brooklyn 
Heights, commanding the cit}-. Howe's army soon arrived 
from Halifax, and was reinforced by the lieets of Admiml 
Howe (^brother of the General) fresh from England, and of 
Admiral Parker, who had come from the defeat at Fort Moul- 
trie. General Howe determined to capture Putnam's di\-ision. 

and with that purpose landed 
twent}' thousand soldiers on the 
southwest shore of Long Island. 
On the 27th of August a banle 
took place, in which the Ameri- 
can advance-guard was defeated 
with the loss of more than one 
thousand prisoners, besides 
many killed and wounded. Be- 
fore storming Putnam's main 
force on Brooklyn Heights, 
Howe waited for his tieet to 
come up. Meanwhile Wash- 
ington crossed over to Long 
Island from Xew York, and 
having collected every available 
boat and fishing craft, safely conducted the remnant of Putnam's 
troops across to Xew York by night under cover of a heavy fog. 




General Ho^e. 



WAR OF THE RKVOLUTIOX. 1 7/ 

277. British occupy New York ; Washington's Retreat 
Northward. — With the British tieet in possession of the har- 
bor, and their troops occupying Brooklyn heights, it was im- 
possible for the American army to hold Xew York. \Yashing- 
ton withdrew from tlie city to the northern end of Manhattan 
Island, and was soon compelled by Howe's superior force to 
cross over to the mainland east of the Hudson. The whole of 
Manhattan Island tlius fell into the hands of the British, with 
the exception of Fort Washington, which, with Fort Lee on the 
west bank of the Hudson, guarded the river. There was an 
indecisive engagement at White Plains between Howe's forces 
and the retreating Americans. Washington tlien retired to 
North Castle, while Howe suddenly turned and hurried back 
toward Xew York. He had just learned from an American 
deserter of the position and strength of the defenses at Fort 
Washington, and had decided to attack that fortification. Its 
garrison made a gallant defense, but was compelled to surrender. 
Three thousand prisoners, besides a large quantit}' of stores, 
fell into the hands of the British.^ To the Americans, this was 
one of the heaviest losses of the war. 

27S. Retreat across New Jersey. — Washington, fearing 
that Howe meditated an advance on Philadelphia, left half of 
his army under General Charles Lee at Xorth Castle, while he 
crossed the Hudson into X'ew Jersey with tlie remainder to 
watch Howe's movements. On the approach of the British 
General Cornwallis, Fort Lee was evacuated, and Washington 
was compelled to retreat. Meanwhile he sent repeated orders 
to General Lee to bring over his half of the army, that he 
might be able to oppose the enemy. But Lee was jealous of 

^ Insomuch is the width of the Hudson at this point \ras so great that Forts 
Washington and Lee w^re unable to prevent British ships from passing up the riv^r. 
Washington had directed the former fort to be evacuated. But in the absence of posi- 
tive orders, and in deference to a niessage from Congress not to abandon the fort, the 
oflicers in command had failed to carry out Washington's plan. 



178 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Washington. He pretended to misunderstand, and sent vari- 
ous excuses.^ Washington, with his Httle force of hardly three 
thousand men, unable to risk a battle, continued to retreat 
across New Jersey, his men discouraged, poorly clad, and suffer- 




ing from the intense cold. Reaching the Delaware he crossed 
the river, taking with him every boat that could be found for 

^ When Lee at last started toward Washington he was surprised and captured by 
a small British force while spending the night at a country-house some distance from 
his army. (This Lee was not connected with the Lees of Virginia.) 




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WAK OI- 'JUh J<KVr>[j;'lION. 1/9 

miles in either flireetion. When tlie iiritish arrived they found 
it impossible to cross. 'J'hey then went into winter quarters, 
separating their army into several divisions, the main body be- 
ing stationed at i'rinceton, and a force of fifteen hundred 
Hessians at 'i'renton. 

279. Battle of Trenton. — Everything now looked gloomy 
for the Americans. Washington's men were so much discour- 
aged that when their time expired many refused to reenlist, and 
his little army was rapidly decreasing in numbers. In response 
to Howe's proclamation offering pardon and protection to all 
who would swear allegiance to the British crown, hundreds of 
wealthy persons were abandoning the American cause. Gen- 
eral Cornwallis, thinking the war was over, prepared to sail for 
England. Washington saw that unless some success was won 
to revive the drooping spirits of his countrymen, the cause of 
liberty would be lost. He formed the daring plan of crossing 
the Delaware, now dangerous with floating ice, and attacking 
the liritish force at 'J'renton. On Christmas night he safely 
conducted his men across the stream, and advancing through 
snow and sleet, took the enemy completely by surprise. With 
the loss of only four men ('two killed and two frozen to death) 
Washington captured the entire force of over one thousand 
Hessian soldiers, and crossed back into Pennsylvania with his 
prisoners and booty. 

280. Battle of Princeton. — Four days later Washington 
again crossed the Delaware and occupied Trenton. Mean- 
while Cornwallis ha.stily abandoned his purpose of embarking 
for Eingland, and led part of his troops from Princeton to at- 
tack the American forces at Trenton. After some skirmishing 
night came on, and Cornwallis decided to wait till next day for 
reenforcements. Washington's position was now most critical. 
Behind him was the river full of floating ice. If the British 
should force him from his entrenchments there was no way of 



i8o 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



escape, and a surrender seemed inevitable. Cornwallis re- 
marked that he had '' run down the old fox at last." But 
again the genius of the American commander turned defeat 
into victory. Ordering a few of his soldiers to go within hear- 
ing distance of his enemy and to pretend to throw up entrench- 
ments, others to keep his camp-fires burning, Washington 
secretly withdrew his army from its perilous position, stole 
around Cornwallis, and at sunrise attacked and defeated the 
British force at Princeton (January 3d), capturing nearly five 
hundred prisoners. The sound of cannon behind him was the 
first hint Cornwallis had that his eneni}- had escaped. He 
hastened to the rescue of his men, but the "old fox" had out- 
generaled him. Washington had withdrawn to Morristown 
Heights, where the British made no attempt to follow. A 
general retreat of the British to the vicinity of New York 
ensued. 

2. CAMPAIGNS IN NORTHERN NEW YORK. 

281. Plan of the British. — While Howe was taking pos- 
session of New York City, a British force from Canada had 
made an unsuccessful expedi- 
tion against the northern part 
of the state. Arnold, in com- 
mand of a small American fleet 
on Lake Champlain, made an 
heroic resistance, but was 
forced to abandon his ships and 
retire within the defenses of 
Ticonderoga. The British 
general feared to attack the 
fort, and withdrew his army to 
Canada. The next year (1777) 
a more carefully prepared plan 
was adopted. Three separate 
armies were to penetrate the state from different directions. One 




WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. l8l 

army under General Burgoyne was to descend from the north, 
by way of Lake Champlain and the Hudson, as far as Albany. 
A second force, much smaller than the first, was to go up the 
St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario, land at Oswego, and advancing 
from the west, capture Fort Stanwix in central New York, 
then join Burgoyne at Albany. At the same time General 
Howe's army at New York was to ascend the Hudson, and 
unite with the two other forces. Thus would the conquest of 
New York be complete. 

282. Burgoyne^s Advance. — Burgoyne, with eight thou- 
sand men splendidly armed and equipped, sailed up the Sorrel 
River and Lake Champlain, unopposed until he reached 
Ticonderoga. After a brief resistance, the garrison abandoned 
this stronghold, and Burgoyne advanced to the head of Lake 
George. General Schuyler, commanding the American forces, 
slowly retreated to Bemis Heights on the Hudson, about thirty 
miles above Albany. Burgoyne's advance was now attended 
with the greatest difficulty. His line of march lay through a 
swampy wilderness through which his enemies had completely 
obstructed every road by cutting down trees across his path 
and destroying bridges. He could procure no food from the 
surrounding country, and found great trouble in getting sup- 
plies from Canada. 

283. Bennington and Fort Stanwix. — Learning that the 
Americans had stores of provisions at Bennington, Vermont, 
twenty miles distant, Burgoyne sent one thousand men to 
capture them. These troops were attacked by General Stark 
with an army of hastily collected New England militia, and 
almost the entire British force was killed or captured. Mean- 
while the British general, St. Leger, with an army of British 
and Indians, had advanced from Lake Ontario to support 
Burgoyne, and was now besieging Fort Stanwix. Schuyler 
sent Arnold to relieve the fort. By a stratagem Arnold sue- 



1 82 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

ceeded in creating a panic in St. Leger's troops. They 
abandoned the siege and tied to the ^vest, hopelessly scattered. 
To add to Burgoyne's difficulties, he did not receive the 
expected support of Howe's army at New York, Howe having 
failed to get orders to that effect until too late. The news of 
the successes at Bennington and Fort Stanwix, and the wrath 
occasioned by the atrocities of the Indian allies of the British 
brought hundreds of recruits to the American army and enabled 
Schuyler to make preparations for a battle. 

284. Battles of Saratoga. — At this critical moment news 
came that Congress had removed Schuyler from command and 
appointed Gates in his stead.^ Schuyler bore the injustice 
nobly and lent every assistance to his successor. On Septenv 
ber 19, near Saratoga, a desperate but indecisive battle was 
fought. Both armies then remained three weeks in their in- 
trenchments, Burgoyne's position growing daily more perilous 
on account of his scant supplies and the increasing numbers 
of his opponents. Then another battle was fought on the 
same ground (October 7). Gates had quarreled with Arnold 
and stripped him of his command. But nevertheless Arnold 
without orders rushed into the thickest of the fight, placed 
himself at the head of his old command, who received him with 
cheers, and won the victory while Gates stayed in his tent. 

285. Surrender of Burgoyne. — Burgoyne, with his army 
beaten and dispirited, cut oft" from supplies, and surrounded by 
a force three times as large as his own, decided to surrender. 
On the 17th of October the papers were signed, and the entire 
British army of over six thousand men laid down their arms. 
It was agreed that a passage to Great Britain should be granted 
to the troops on condition of their not serving again in the 

^ Not long before this, Congress had grossly offended Arnold by promoting sub- 
ordinate officers over him, on the ground that his state, Connecticut, already had 
two generals. The unjust treatment of Schuyler was also due to state prejudices. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 



183 



war. (Congress failed to carry out this agreement. The 
captured men remained in this country as prisoners of war 
until the close of the struggle.) 

286. Results of the Surrender. — After this great victory 
the American forces occupied Ticonderoga and all the forts on 
the northern frontier. The British plan to cut the United 
States in two by seizing the Hudson valley had failed. The 
news of the capture of a whole British army awakened the 
wildest joy from Maine to Georgia, completely counteracting 
the depressing effects of Brandy- 
wine and Germantown (§§ 288 and 
289). Best of all, the victory 
hastened the decision of the French 
government to acknowledge the 
independence of the United States 
and to form an alliance with them. 
From the beginning of the struggle 
the sympathies of France had been 
with the Americans and against 
her old enemy, England. Her 
brave Lafayette had voluntarily 
left country and friends to fight for American liberty. Ship- 
loads of supplies and large sums of money had been secretly 
sent over. The American commissioners in Paris, Franklin, 
Deane, and Arthur Lee, had been urging an alliance. In 
February, 177S, a treaty of alliance was signed, and a French 
fleet was sent over to aid the Americans. 




Lafayette. 



S. CA^fPAIGNS AROUND PHILADELPHIA. 

287. Plan of the British. — Howe, instead of ascending 
the Hudson to cooperate with Burgoyne. as every one expected 
him to do. decided to advance upon Philadelphia, the "rebel 
capital.'' His first intention was to lead his army from New 



1 84 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



<^%«'* 
^ 



:h-""""1 1 



York by land, but the skillful manoeuvering of Washington 
caused him to abandon this attempt. He then embarked his 
troops, coasted south, entered Chesapeake Bay, and sailed up 
to its head, where he landed his army for their march to Phila- 
delphia. As soon as Washington was certain of his enemy's 
movements, he hastened to oppose him, while Schuyler and 
Gates were endeavoring to check Burgoyne in northern New 
York. 

288. Battle of the Brandywine. — To oppose the British 
advance on Philadelphia, Washington stationed his army at 

Chad's Ford on Brandywine 
Creek, directly in their line of 
march. Howe divided his forces 
and while one division remained 
at Chad's Ford, Cornwallis led 
another across the stream sev- 
eral miles above, and fell upon 
Washington's flank. Although 
not routed, the Americans were 
driven from the field with heavy 
loss (September 11, 1777, eight 
days before the first battle of 
Saratoga). This was the first 
American battle in which the young French Marquis Lafayette 
participated. Both he and the Polish Count Pulaski showed 
conspicuous gallantry in the fight. 

289. Philadelphia taken; Battle of Germantown. — The 

British army then took possession of Philadelphia, marching 
proudly into the city with bands playing and colors flying. 
Congress hastily adjourned to Lancaster, then to York, Penn- 
sylvania. The main body of Howe's troops was stationed at 
Germantown, five miles from Philadelphia. Here on the 4th 
of October (three days before the second battle of Saratoga) 




BATTLE 

OF THE 

BRANDYWINE 




British Campaign against Philadelphia. 



1 86 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Washington attacked them. His plans were admirable, and 
doubtless would have been successful, had not a dense fog 
prevented their being carried out promptly. Again his troops 
were compelled to withdraw from the field. Soon afterward 
the forts guarding the mouth of the Delaware were captured 
by the British. This gave them possession of the river and 
enabled them to bring their supplies directly to Philadelphia 
by water. 

290. A Winter of Suffering and Gloom. — The British now 
went into winter quarters at Philadelphia, while Washington 
retired to Valley Forge, about twenty-five miles west of the 
city. This winter of 1777-78 was the gloomiest period of the 
war. Washington's men had to build the rude log huts which 
were to protect them from the cold. Their food was flour 
mixed with water, which they baked at the open fires. Many 
of the men were without shirts, and hundreds were barefooted. 
Blankets were so scarce that the soldiers often had to sit by 
the fire all night to keep from freezing. Sleeping on the cold 
ground produced sickness, which spread rapidly among the 
troops. In the midst of all this suffering a few of Washing- 
ton's jealous subordinate officers were plotting for his over- 
throw. His defeats at Brandywine and Germantown were 
contrasted with the success of Schuyler and Gates against 
Burgoyne. A conspiracy known as the Conway Cabal, from 
its leader. General Conway, endeavored to weaken Washing- 
ton's influence with Congress and the country, that he might 
be displaced from command, and Gates appointed in his stead. 
The conspirators made some headway in Congress, but their 
wretched plot was at last made public, and only served to 
strengthen Washington in the esteem of his countrymen. 
Congress at this time was woefully inefficient. Many of its 
members feared a standing army, and refused to follow Wash- 
ington's advice for the relief of the troops. The ablest mem- 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 8/ 

bers of the first and second Congresses had accepted positions 
either in the army or in their state governments. " The Con- 
tinental Congress and the currency," wrote Gouverneur Morris 
in 1778, "have greatly depreciated." 

291. British Retire from Philadelphia to New York. — 

Although Howe had driven Washington's army from two battle- 
fields, and had occupied Philadelphia, yet he had gained no 
decisive victory, in spite of the fact that his army outnumbered 
his opponent's two to one. The British government, dissatisfied 
with the results of his campaign, recalled General Howe, and 
appointed Sir Henry Clinton his successor. The expected 
arrival of the French fleet now made it necessary for the Brit- 
ish to concentrate their forces at New York. Accordingly, 
Philadelphia was evacuated, and General Clinton started his 
army across New Jersey (June 18, 1778). 

292. Battle of Monmouth. — Washington hastened from 
Valley Forge in pursuit. The command of the American ad- 
vance fell to General Charles Lee,^ but being opposed to an 
attack he declined to act, and W^ashington appointed Lafayette 
in his stead. Lee afterward changed his mind, and demanded 
his place. Lafayette, to save embarrassment to Washington, 
at once yielded. The British army was overtaken near Mon- 
mouth, and an engagement began. Lee, apparently having no 
faith in the ability of his troops to stand against the British 
regulars, ordered them to retire, greatly to the disgust of his 
men. As soon as word was carried to Washington, he dashed 
to the front at full speed, meeting Lee with his men in full re- 
treat. Overwhelmed with indignation at Lee's conduct, he 
rebuked that general in severest terms, and ordered him to the 
rear. Then rallying the troops, he held his ground till night 
ended the conflict. At midnight Clinton stole away, leaving 

1 Lee had been exchanged for the British general, Prescott, whom a few Ameri 
cans had surprised and captured. 



1 88 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

his dead unburied. Neither side had been defeated, yet in 
effect the battle was a victory for the Americans. The next 
day Lee wrote an insolent note to Washington, demanding an 
apology for his language on the battlefield. He was placed 
under arrest and tried for disobedience to orders, misbehavior 
on the field, and disrespect to the commander-in-chief. Con- 
victed on all three charges, he was suspended from his com- 
mand for one year. He never returned to the army, but spent 
the rest of his life as a hermit on his estate. 

293. Indian Massacres. — In the northeastern part of Penn- 
sylvania, where the Susquehanna river breaks through the moun- 
tains, is the beautiful valley of Wyoming. In the summer of 
1778 a party of British and Indians swept down upon this 
peaceful region. The men were nearly all away in the Conti- 
nental armies. A small force hastily collected to oppose the 
invaders was beaten. Scenes of horrible cruelty followed. 
The whole valley was laid waste, helpless women and children 
were burned at the stake, or put to death with sickening tor- 
tures. Cherry Valley, in central New York, was attacked a few 
months later, and its inhabitants were treated in the same hor- 
rible manner. In the summer of the next year (1779), Wash- 
ington sent an army under General Sullivan into western New 
York to break up the strongholds of the Indians and Tories in 
that region. Sullivan defeated the enemy's force, and pro- 
ceeded to burn their villages, destroy their growing crops, and 
cut down their fruit trees. The Indians never recovered from 
this crushing blow. 

294. The War Transferred to the South. — After the battle 
of Monmouth Clinton retired to New York, while Washington 
remained in striking distance of the city to watch every move- 
ment of his enemy. Save for an unsuccessful attack upon the 
British garrison at Newport, Rhode Island, by a land force 
under General Sullivan, aided by a French fleet (in the sum- 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 89 

mer of 1778), there was no other miUtary movement of any 
consequence in the states north of Virginia during the rest of 
the war. The cherished plan of the British to cut the United 
States in two by seizing the middle division had failed. Hence- 
forth they directed their efforts to conquering the Southern 
states. 

295. Summary of War in the Middle States. — The plan ot the Brit- 
ish was to cut the United States in two by taking possession of the Hud' 
son or Delaware rivers. They first attempted to seize the Hudson. Gen- 
eral Howe won the battle of Long Island, then took New York City, and 
drove Washington up to North Castle. Fort Washington on the Hudson 
was surrendered to the British. Washington, having crossed into New 
Jersey, was compelled to retreat across that state, escaping over the Dela- 
ware. On Christmas night he won a brilliant victory at Trenton, and an- 
other ten days later at Princeton. The British general, Burgoyne, sup- 
ported by St. Leger, made an attempt to seize the Hudson River from the 
north. This campaign ended in the surrender of Burgoyne to Gates at 
Saratoga, October 17, 1777. France then formed an alliance with the 
United States, and sent over ships and men to our aid. Meanwhile Gen- 
eral Howe determined to seize Philadelphia and the Delaware River. Ad- 
vancing by way of Chesapeake Bay, he gained the battles of Brandywine and 
Germantown, and occupied Philadelphia. Washington's army spent a ter- 
rible winter at Valley Forge. The expected arrival of the French fleet 
caused the British to retire to New York. Washington followed them and 
fought an indecisive battle at Monmouth. The war was then transferred 
to the South. 

296. Thought Questions. — Why was it so difficult for Washington to 
defend New York City ? Why was control of the Hudson so important ? 
On what previous occasions did New York City surrender to a foreign 
fleet ? In the campaigns around New York City, mention two instances 
in which Washington's orders were not obeyed. What was the result in 
each case .'' What results might have followed if Washington had 
attempted to hold New York City ? What evidence of good generalship 
did Washington show in the escape from Long Island and the subsequent 
retreat ? in his operations during the two weeks beginning Christmas day, 
1776.'' Mention the battles in which General Arnold has taken part up to 
this point in the war. What were the causes of the failure of the British 
attempt to take the Hudson River from the north ? Who deserves most 



190 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



credit for the capture of Burgoyne ? Why was France more willing to aid 
us than was Holland or Spain? In w^hich of the campaigns in the Middle 
states was the greatest military skill displayed by American commanders ? 
Which campaign was most decisive in its results? Why did the British 
consider control of the Delaware River important ? Were the money and 
supplies of the French, or their land troops, or their fleet most needed by 
the Americans ? How was Washington hampered by Congress ? by his 
subordinate officers ? 



IV. THE WAR BEYOND THE FRONTIERS. 

(1778-79-) 
/. IVEST OF THE ALLEGHANIES. 

lOTI' Clark's Conquest of the Illinois Country. — The 
region between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes was 
claimed by Virginia under her charter of 1609, but a recent 
act of Parliament had 
declared it part of 
the British Province 
of Quebec. In 
1778, George Rogers 
Clark, member of 
the Virginia Legisla- 
ture from the " Coun- 
ty of Kentucky," 
formed the bold plan 
of seizing the British 
forts between the 
Ohio and Mississippi 
Rivers. Governor 
Patrick Henry and the Legislature of Virginia approved the 
plan, and granted Clark a small equipment of troops and 
supplies. Under a leader of less enthusiasm and strength of 
will than this " Hannibal of the West," the hazardous enter- 
prise would have been a failure. But Clark's little band, 




Clark's Exped 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. IQI 

sometimes marching for days without food, crossed trackless 
prairies, waded through miles of overflowed river-bottoms, over- 
awed hostile Indians, and finally reaching the British posts in 
Illinois and Indiana, compelled them to surrender. The neigh- 
boring French settlers were made to swear allegiance to Vir- 
ginia. This territory was at once constituted a county of 
Virginia, and was named the County of Illinois. The fact that 
it had been conquered by Clark, and was held by American 
troops at the close of the war was the basis of the claim to its 
ownership made by the United States and finally admitted by 
Great Britain in the treaty of peace. But for the genius of 
George Rogers Clark, the Ohio River, instead of the Great 
Lakes, would probably have been fixed as the southern bound- 
ary of British America. (§ 329.) 

298. The Indians of the Southwest. — Constant efforts 
were made by British agents to arouse the Indians on the 
western frontiers of the Southern states. During the early 
years of the Revolution, there were frequent conflicts between 
the savages and the militia of Virginia, the Carolinas, and 
Georgia. In the latter part of the war, the Indians were kept 
quiet chiefly through the efforts of General Joseph Martin, 
Indian agent for Virginia, who made his home among them 
and wielded a great influence over them. It was this peaceful 
condition of the savages that made the victory at King's 
Mountain possible, by enabling the frontiersmen who won that 
battle to leave their homes for a time unprotected.^ 

2. ON THE OCEAN. 

299. Naval Forces of the United States. — At the begin- 
ning of the war Congress organized a little navy of five ships 
with Esek Hopkins, of Rhode Island, commander-in-chief. 

1 In 1779, Spanish troops under Governor Galvez, of New Orleans, captured the 
British forts on the lower Mississippi. Within the next two years, they also took 
Mobile and Pensacola. 



192 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Before the war was over, almost every one of these vessels 
had been captured, or burned to avoid capture. Several 
states maintained independent naval 
forces of their own. But the com- 
bined navies of Congress and the 
separate states were unable to cope 
with the power of Great Britain on 
the sea. Until the very close of the 
war, little aid was rendered by the 
French fleet. Our most effective 
service on the ocean was performed 
by the numerous privateers commis- 
sioned by Congress. These inflicted 
untold damage on British commerce. 




300. Paul Jones's Victory. — The most noteworthy naval 
battle of the war was fought on the North Sea, near the coast 
of England, off Flamborough 
Head. Here on September 23, 
1779, a brilliant victory was 
gained by an American squad- 
ron under Captain John Paul 
Jones. Jones was a young 
Scotchman who had emigrated 
to New England, and had been 
appointed by Congress, captain 
in the United States navy. 
While cruising in the North 
Sea with a little fleet of French 
and American ships, Jones at- 
tacked two British men-of-war 

that were escorting a number of merchant vessels. Jones's 
own ship, the Boji Homme Richard (so named from the 
**Good Man Richard" of Franklin's Almanac) attacked the 




WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 93 

enemy's Serapis. The two ships were lashed together and 
fought until both took fire, and Jones's vessel was on the 
point of sinking. At last the Serapis surrendered, and Jones 
had barely transferred his men to the conquered ship when 
his own vessel sank. The other English ship was also cap- 
tured. 

301. Summary. — Under the authority of the State of Virginia, 
George Rogers Clark led a party of militia against the British posts in 
the Illinois country, then held by Great Britain as part of her Province of 
Quebec. Clark's expedition was successful, and the territory north-west 
of the Ohio was organized as a county of Virginia. Its occupation by 
Virginian troops had an important bearing on the question of boundary as 
agreed upon subsequently in the treaty of peace. 

The Indians on the western frontiers were a source of constant danger. 
The expedition of General Sullivan in the North (§ 293), and the efforts 
of militia leaders together with skillful diplomacy of our Indian agents in 
the South served to hold them in check. In 1779 Captain Paul Jones 
gained a brilliant naval victory off the coast of England. 

302. Thought Questions. — What independent part did Virginia play in 
the Revolutionary struggle ? What results followed from it } How do 
you account for French settlements in the Illinois country? Why were 
the Indians so much less important in the Revolution than in the French 
wars } Why were so few victories on the ocean won by the United States .? 



V. WAR IH THE SOUTH. 

(1778-1781.) 

303. Plan of the British. — The successful defense of Fort 
Moultrie in the early part of the war (§ 269) had checked 
the first attempt of the British to subdue the Southern colonies. 
Defeated now in the New England and Middle states, they 
determined to renew their efforts for the subjugation of the 
South. Their plan was first to overcome Georgia and South 
Carolina, then from these states to work their way northward. 
Accordingly Clinton ordered part of his army under command 
of Colonel Campbell to sail from New York. To oppose this 




194 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

movement Congress placed General Lincoln in command of 
the Southern department. 

/. IN GEORGIA AND THE CAROLINAS. 

304. Fall of Savannah and Augusta. — Savannah, Geor- 
gia, was the first point of attack. Before Lincoln could arrive, 

the small force of defenders had been 
beaten, and the town had fallen into 
the hands of the British (December, 
778). The invaders then ascended 
the Savannah River and captured 
Augusta. General Prevost, com- 
manding the troops in the British 
territory of Florida, now took com- 
mand of the united forces of the 

General Lincoln. enemy. 

305. Georgia Overrun by the British. — The militia of 
South Carolina and Georgia rallied under command of Colonels 
Pickens and Clarke, and defeated a detachment of the British 
at Kettle Creek, Georgia. Soon afterward, however, a division 
of Lincoln's army under General Ashe was surprised and 
beaten at Briar Creek. Georgia seemed now (spring of 1779) 
completely in the power of the British. The royal governor 
was reinstated, and the old colonial government restored. 

306. Events in the North. — While these events were going 
on in the South, General Clinton at New York was sending out 
small marauding parties to various points on the Atlantic coast. 
In Connecticut, New Jersey, and Virginia, coast towns were 
plundered and burned, citizens murdered, and ladies insulted. 
At the same time, Clinton ascended the Hudson and captured 
the fort guarding the river at Stony Point. Washington sent 
General Wayne (called " Mad Anthony Wayne " from his desper- 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 1 95 

ate bravery) to recapture the place. Wayne determined upon 
a midnight assault. That the barking of curs might not betray 
him, he ordered every dog in the vicinity killed. That no shot 
from his own troops might reveal his plan he made his men 
unload their guns, and advance with fixed bayonets. Moving 
in perfect silence, his men reached the British outposts before 
they were discovered. After a brief conflict the garrison sur- 
rendered (July 1 6, 1779). Three days after this brilliant ex- 
ploit the captors destroyed the works and evacuated the fort, 
Washington finding that he could not spare enough men from 
his army to defend it. 

307. Effort to Recapture Savannah. — In the autumn of 
this year the French fleet, after its unsuccessful attack upon 
Newport, Rhode Island (§ 294), appeared before Savannah. 
An assault upon the British defenses was made by the com- 
bined forces of the French under D'Estaing and the Americans 
under Lincoln (October, 1779). The attack was a disastrous fail- 
ure. Among those killed in the assault were Count Pulaski, a 
brave Polish officer, and Sergeant Jasper, the hero of Fort 
Moultrie. Lincoln's army withdrew into South Carolina, and 
the fleet sailed away to France. 

308. British Capture Charleston. — Encouraged by the 
success of his troops in Georgia, Clinton determined to take 
charge of the Southern army himself, and to begin the con- 
quest of South Carolina by an attack upon Charleston, the 
largest city in the South. Leaving a sufficient force in New 
York to hold Washington at bay, he landed thirty miles below 
Charleston, and led his army overland toward the city, whfle 
his fleet approached the harbor. Washington sent all his Vir- 
ginia and North Carolina troops to the aid of Lincoln, but still 
that general's forces were wholly inadequate for the defense of 
Charleston. The enemy's troops gradually surrounded him on 
the land side, while their fleet in the midst of a furious thunder- 



196 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



storm sailed by Fort Moultrie, which guarded the entrance to 
the harbor, and joined in the attack. On ]May 12, 1780, 
Charleston was surrendered, and Lincoln with his whole army 
of about two thousand men became prisoners of war. 

309. South Carolina Overrun by the British. — The sur- 
render of Lincoln's army together with the capture of Charles- 
ton was a severe blow to the patriot cause, and a correspond- 
ing encouragement to the British. Clinton sent detachments 
into the interior of the state, and issued a circular, offering 

pardon to all who would return to British 
allegiance, and calling upon all the people 
to aid in reestablishing the royal govern- 
ment under penalty of being treated as 
rebels and traitors. Then, thinking little 
else remained to be done, Clinton sailed 
away to New York, leaving Cornwallis to 
complete the conquest of the South. Al- 
though with no organized army of defense, 
the spirits of the southern patriots were 
not broken. Small bands of militia, under 
such leaders as Marion (the " Swamp 
Fox"), Sumter (the "Game Cock"), 
Pickens, and Clarke, carried on a vigorous warfare of sudden 
surprises and desperate hand-to-hand combats, keeping up the 
courage of their countrymen, until the British were finally 
expelled from the state. "But for Marion and Sumter," wrote 
the British general, "South Carolina would be at peace." 

310. Battle of Camden. — Against the advice of Washing- 
ton, Congress appointed General Gates to the command of the 
Southern department, to succeed the captured Lincoln. Of 
Gates, who was praised as the "conqueror of Burgoyne," great 
things were expected. With a strong army he hurried south, 
disregarding the suggestions of his officers and confident of 



w 


pp 


^ 


^^F "'''' 


\ 


% 


■ 




m 



General Sumter. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 



197 



victory. He encountered the British under Cornwallis near 
Camden, in the northern part of South Carolina. Each general 
had decided to surprise the other by a night attack. About 
two o'clock in the morning (August 16, 1780), their advance 



Petersburgh, 




Greene's Campaign. — War in the Carolinas. 

guards met and a general conflict followed. The American 
militia fled at the first charge of the enemy. Our regulars 
under DeKalb held their ground until their brave leader fell 
pierced by eleven wounds ; then they abandoned the field. 
Save one brigade of regulars, who retired in good order, the 



1^8 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

whole army of Gates was completely routed. Gates himself 
was borne in the headlong flight far into North Carolina, and 
that night found him sixty miles from the battlefield without 
an army. This was the severest defeat an American army had 
ever suffered. Gates's "Northern laurels" had indeed changed 
to ''Southern willows.'' 

311. Battle of King's Mountain (October 7, 1780). — After 
his victory at Camden. Cornwallis advanced to Charlotte, 
North Carolina, the county-seat of the famous Mecklenburg 
County (§ 261) and a '-hornet's nest of rebels'' as the British 
general called it. From here he sent a detachment under 
General Ferguson to enlist the Tories in the highlands of 
South Carolina. Ferguson's force of twelve hundred men was 
attacked at King's Mountain, on the border bet^veen the 
Carolinas, by a band of frontiersmen led by William Campbell, 
Charles McDowell, John Sevier, and other border chieftains. 
The British position on the mountain was stormed from three 
directions. The Carolina backwoodsmen advanced from tree 
to tree, using their unerring rifles with deadly effect. The 
British general was killed while leading a charge, and his men 
surrendered. The victors dispersed for their homes, after hav- 
ing tried by court-martial and hanged for treason nine of their 
Tory prisoners. This brilliant victory, sometimes called the 
" Bennington of the South " changed the whole course of the 
war in this department. It cost Cornwallis a valuable part of 
his army, and caused him to abandon his plan of invading 
North Carolina, and to hurry back into South Carolina in order 
to hold the British posts in that state. 

312. Arnold's Treason. — The year 17S0 was full of dis- 
asters to the American cause. The surrender of Lincoln's 
army and the destruction of Gates's were now closely followed 
by the treason of one of our bravest officers in the North. 
General Benedict Arnold had shown conspicuous courage at 



I 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 199 

Quebec, on Lake Champlain, and at Saratoga. But Congress 
had treated him unjustly, and General Gates had wronged 
him ; and he had not the greatness of soul to forget his own 
slights for his country's sake. After the British evacuation of 
Philadelphia, Arnold was placed in command of that city. 
Here he fell in love with a Tory lady. Her influence and 
that of her family led him to look with favor upon the 
enemies of his country. His extravagant living and self-willed 
conduct got him into trouble. He was accused of squander- 
ing public funds. On trial, the court acquitted him of inten- 
tional dishonesty, but sentenced him to be reprimanded by the 
commander-in-chief for " imprudence.'' Washington performed 
the disagreeable duty with great delicacy. Arnold, stung by the 
disgrace, however, determined to betray his country. He got 
himself appointed to the command of West Point, that he 
might surrender that important post to the British. Clinton 
sent Major Andre up the Hudson to confer with him. As 
Andre was returning to New York in disguise, he was arrested 
by three militiamen, who searched him and discovered in his 
boots papers revealing Arnold's base plot. Word was carried 
to Arnold at West Point that his plans were discovered. He 
escaped at once on board a British vessel in the river, and 
reached New York in safety. Although he failed to deliver 
up West Point, he received ;:<!"io,ooo and the rank of general 
in the British army for his treason. Major Andre was tried as 
a spy and executed. 

313. Greene Placed in Command. — Congress, following 
Washington's suggestion, now appointed General Greene to 
succeed the conquered Gates. On reaching the Carolinas, 
Greene found a difficult task confronting him. The British 
had possession of Georgia and South Carolina and were ready 
to advance upon Xorth Carolina. Their troops were well 
disciplined and equipped; their officers, Cornwallis, Tarleton, 



200 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



and Rawdon, were bold and skillful. To meet these tremen- 
dous odds, Greene had a mere handful of men, the remnant of 
Gates's conquered army. His troops were without supplies, 
the people were dispirited. Yet Greene himself was one of 
the ablest generals of his time, and his genius was worth a 
dozen armies. Moreover, he was aided by a splendid group 
of subordinate officers. There was Daniel Morgan, who had 
served with distinction at Quebec and 
Saratoga. Like Arnold, he had been 
unjustly treated by Congress, and had 
retired in disgust to his home in Vir- 
ginia. But on learning of the defeat at 
Camden, he forgot his wrongs and 
hastened to the defense of his country. 
There were those splendid cavalry 
leaders, Henry Lee (known as "Light- 
horse Harry"), father of the distin- 
guished Robert E. Lee, and William 
Washington, cousin of the commander- 
in-chief, besides the militia chieftains, Marion, Sumter, and 
Pickens, who were ever ready to strike a daring blow. We 
shall see how all the advantages of the enemy were overcome, 
and the Southern states recovered from the British. 




General Greene. 



314. Battle of the Cowpens. — After the defeat at King's 
Mountain, Cornwallis had withdrawn to Winsboro, in the 
northern part of South Carolina. Greene advanced into South 
Carolina, and encamped on the Pedee River directly east of 
Cornwallis. The American commander now decided to divide 
his little army. He sent Morgan around the enemy's position 
to threaten the British posts in the western part of the state. 
Cornwallis by this time was ready for a second invasion of 
North Carolina, but he was unwilling to leave Morgan in his 
rear. Like Greene, the British general then divided his army. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 20I 

sending a detachment under Tarleton after Morgan. Tarleton 
overtook Morgan at the Cowpens, a few miles frofn King's 
Mountain. In a hotly contested battle the British were de- 
feated. After a desperate single combat with Colonel Washing- 
ton, Tarleton himself barely escaped with a sword-cut in the 
hand. This decisive victory deprived Cornwallis of one-third 
of his army, and severely crippled his movements. 

315. Greene's Retreat. — (See map, p. 197.) Morgan now 
hastened back to reunite his forces with those of Greene. 
CornwalHs made all speed to intercept him at the fords of the 
Catawba. Morgan, by a rapid march, reached the river first, 
and crossed in safety. A sudden rise in the stream prevented 
the British from crossing at once. Meanwhile Greene placed 
a subordinate officer in charge of his main army, with orders to 
retire northward so as to join Morgan's retreating division, 
while he himself dashed across the country by the shortest 
roads to Morgan's hard-pressed men. He joined them at the 
Catawba and at once took charge of the retreat. Cornwallis, 
having burned all his heavy baggage that might impede his 
movements, hastened the pursuit. He reached the Yadkin a 
few hours after the Americans had crossed, but again a sudden 
rise in the water checked his advance. At Guilford Court 
House, in northern North Carolina, Greene's main army joined 
him, but still his force was too small to risk a battle. Contin- 
uing the retreat, he reached the Dan River, and crossed over 
into Virginia. Cornwallis, baffled at last, gave up the pursuit. 

316. Guilford Court House. — The British general turned 
back into North Carolina, and proclaiming that state con- 
quered, called upon the North Carolinians to return to their 
allegiance to the king. But Greene, by no means beaten, re- 
crossed the Dan, and having received heavy reinforcements, 
engaged Cornwallis in battle at Guilford Court House. After 
a desperate conflict in which the bravery of the militia atoned 



202 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

for their disgraceful conduct at Camden, Greene retreated, 
leaving the enemy in possession of the field. Cornwallis 
claimed a victory, yet his loss was so heavy that it was said in 
England that " another such victory would destroy the British 
army." 

317. Georgia and the Carolinas Recovered. — Cornwallis 
now began a retreat to Wilmington, on the North Carolina 
coast. Greene pursued him for some distance, then correctly 
judging that he had nothing to fear from Cornwallis's army at 
present, hastened to the relief of South Carolina, in which 
state several strong posts were held by the British, At Hob- 
kirk Hill, near Camden, Greene, though compelled to retreat, 
proceeded as usual to reap all the fruits of victory. The 
British evacuated Camden, and one post after another fell into 
the hands of the Americans. Eutaw Springs, a drawn battle, 
was really another victory for Greene. The British retired to 
Charleston, and during the rest of the war remained cooped up 
on the coast. Thus, in a little more than a year, Greene's 
splendid generalship had wrested Georgia and the Carolinas 
from the control of the British. 



2. IN VIRGINIA. 

318. Plan of Cornwallis. — The traitor Arnold, with a 
British force, had been committing ravages in Virginia. He 
was opposed by a small army under Baron Steuben, an 
experienced German officer who had come over to aid the 
Americans. Afterward Lafayette was sent with a body of 
Northern troops to capture the traitor. Cornwallis, now that 
he found himself out-generalled by Greene, determined to 
abandon the Carolinas, march up into Virginia, unite his 
troops with those of Arnold, and attempt the conquest of this, 
the most powerful state in the South. 




WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 203 

319. Washington's Daring Plan. — So far, the French 
army and fleet had been of little direct service to the Ameri- 
cans. In fact the great value of the French alliance up to this 
time had been indirect, in keeping 
England so busy in other parts of the 
world that she was unable to concen- 
trate her energies upon her revolted 
colonies. In the summer of 1781, how- 
ever, a French fleet under DeGrasse 
again approached the coast of the 
United States. Washington now de- 
termined to strike a telling blow. His 
first plan was a joint attack upon New 
York by his own troops and the allied 
fleet, hoping thus to overwhelm Clin- ^°'^ comwaiiis. 
ton's army and end the war. But learning that Cornwallis had 
come up into Virginia and was stationed near the coast with 
the army of Lafayette in front of him, Washington formed this 
daring plan : to hurry his own army four hundred miles south- 
ward into Virginia ; to join Lafayette ; and while the French 
fleet prevented the escape of Cornwallis, to crush that general's 
army before Clinton could send him aid, from New York. 

320. Movements of the Armies. — Cornwallis invaded Vir- 
ginia, Lafayette's small force retreating before him. Clinton, 
who now feared an attack upon New York, sent word to Corn- 
wallis to keep near the coast, so as to be able to sail to his aid 
at any moment. Accordingly Cornwallis took position at York- 
town, on a peninsula between the mouths of the James and 
York Rivers. Meanwhile, as soon as Washington learned that 
the French fleet had started from the West Indies for Chesa- 
peake Bay, he entered upon the execution of his brilliant plan. 
Hurling his troops southward with all possible haste and 
secrecy, he had almost reached the Maryland border before 



204 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Clinton understood his movements. Clinton now hastened to 
send his fleet against the French squadron that had entered 
Chesapeake Bay. At the same time he ordered Arnold to 
attack the coast towns of Connecticut, hoping thus to draw 




NORTH CAKOL 



Washington's March upon Yorktown. 

Washington back. Both plans failed of their object. The 
English fleet was driven back from the mouth of the Chesa- 
peake, and Washington, refusing to be enticed from his prey, 
left Connecticut to take care of itself. Reaching the head of 
Chesapeake Bay, the American commander completed his 
swift journey in ships, and took command of the combined 
armies on Yorktown peninsula. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 20$ 

321. Surrender at Yorktown. — Cormvallis was entrapped. 
Encamped on a narrow peninsula, the French fleet threatened 
three sides of his position, while an army twice the size of his 
own blocked his escape by land. The French troops under 
General Rochambeau put themselves under Washington's 
orders, and vied with their American allies in storming the 
British works. One redoubt after another was taken. Finally, 
on the 19th of October, Cornwallis surrendered. His troops, 
eight thousand strong, marched between two long lines of 
French and American soldiers to lay down their arms, while 
their bands played an old English air, "The World's Turned 
Upside Down." 

322. Result of the Victory. — Swift messengers sped the 
news of the glorious victory through the length and breadth of 
the land. Congress adjourned at once to church for a service 
of thanksgiving and prayer. The joy of the people knew no 
limit, for they realized that the capture of this British army 
must close the war. In England, Lord North's ministry was 
overthrown, and a new ministry favorable to the United States 
was chosen. For the last three years plucky old England had 
been waging war, single-handed and alone, with three of the 
most powerful nations in the world, France, Spain, and Hol- 
land. She now realized that to subdue her rebellious colonies, 
whose courage and love of freedom equaled her own, was a 
hopeless task. Moreover, from the beginning of the struggle, 
a strong minority in Parliament had opposed the war. A few 
months before the surrender at Yorktown, the younger Pitt had 
denounced the American war as "most accursed, wicked, bar- 
barous, cruel, unnatural, unjust, and diabolical." Although 
British troops continued to hold New York, Charleston, and a 
few other points, no further hostilities followed. 



206 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

323. Treaty of Peace. — In September, 17S3. a final treat}' 
of peace was signed at Paris. Its first provision was as fol- 
lows : "His Britannic Majesty acknowledges tlie said United 
States, viz. : Xew Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode 
Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, 
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia to be free, 
sovereign and independent States." At tlie same time Eng- 
land made peace with the other nations witli which she had 
been at war. To Spain she gave back Florida, which had been 
a British possession since 1763 (§ 202). 

324. Summary of the War in the South. — Unsuccessful in the Middle 
states, the next plan of the British was to occupy Georgia and the Caroli- 
nas, and from these states to work their way northward. 

Savannah and Augusta were captured by the British, and Georgia was 
overrun, 177S-79. General Lincoln made an unsuccessful attempt to re- 
capture Savannali. He was himself compelled to surrender at Charleston. 
His successor, General Gates, was badly beaten at Camden. King's Moun- 
tain was a brilliant victory for the American militia. General Greene, suc- 
cessor of Gates, by skillful manceuvering, without gaining any decisive 
victory, recovered Georgia and the Carolinas from the British. Comwallis 
having advanced from North Carolina into Virginia, was besieged at York- 
town by the combined forces of ^Vashington, Lafayette, and the French 
fleet. He surrendered October 19, 17S1. A treaty of peace was made two 
years later. 

325. Thought Questions. — How many years elapsed, after the begin- 
ning of the war, before the Southern states were invaded? AVhy did the 
British defer their attack on this section? Why did they attempt the sub- 
jugation of the South when they did? What was the nature of most of 
the warfare in the Southern states ? In which of his campaigns during 
the Revolution did Washington display the greatest skill? Whom do you 
consider the two ablest American generals ? The ablest British general ? 
Give grounds for your opinion. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 20/ 

Topical Analysis (War of the Revolution). 

Conduct of English kings. 
241. Old Grievances. ■{ Conduct of royal governors. 

Feeling at close of French wars. 
Purpose of the laws. 



242. The Laws of Trade. , „ 

' Four requirements. 



The laws evaded. 



243, 244. Enforcement of i Admiralty courts, 
the Laws. > Writs of assistance. 

[ Feeling of the colonists. 

( Salaries of Virginia clergymen. 
245. The "Parson's Case." \ Their suit. 

l^ Henry's defiance of the king. 

{British argument. 
The Stamp Act. 
Argument of the colonists, 
r Compared with U.S. Congress. 
248. The British Parliament. < " Rotten Boroughs." 

[^ Results of such representation. 

fin Virginia. 
In North Carolina. 
In Massachusetts. 
The Stamp Act Congress. 
(^ Repeal of the Act. 
( Their requirements. 
252. The Townshend Acts. ^ Action of Massachusetts Assembly. 
1^ Action of Virginia Assembly. 
^ J Action of New York Assembly. 

"^•^' 1 The Boston Massacre. 

254. The Battle of Alamance. 

f Purpose of the tax. 

255. The Tea Tax. -I Plans to enforce it. 

1^ Action of the colonists. 

^ T^ ■ -u X X « ^ f Boston Port BUI. 

256. Punishment of Boston. | ^^^^^^^ ^^ Massachusetts annulled. 

In Georgia and South Carolina. 

257. Sympathy for Boston, -j In Virginia. 

First Continental Congress. 



:o8 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



f Purpose of the British, 



260. Lexington and 
Concord. 



Paul Revere's ride. 

Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord, 
The return march. 
England. 



r In Ei 

261. Effect of the News. ■\ In the colonies. 

1^ Mecklenburg Declaration. 

.^ , ^.,, r Fortitication of the hill. 

262. Bunker Hill. ^ ^ , . , ^ . . , 

l^ Attack of the British. 

263. Second Continental C Measures of resistance. 

Congress. t Commander-in-chief of the army 

^ „, , . , . , ^ , r When and where. 

264. Washington takes Command 



266. Evacuation of Boston. 



Difficulties overcome. 
Purpose. 
65. Expedition against Canada. <j March of the armies. 

1^ Results accomplished. 
Dorchester Heights. 
^Vithdrawal of the British. 
267. The King's Authority f Flight of royal governors. 
Overthrown. (^ Battle of Moore's Creek. 



26S, 269. Attack on the 
Carolinas. 



270,271. Independence. 



The North Carolina coast. 
Battle of Fort Moultrie. 

Action of North Carolina. 

Of Virginia. 

Of Congress. 

Synopsis of the Declaration. 
72. The New Government. Adoption of a constitution. 

Plan of the British. 

f Washington's defenses. 
76. Battle of Long Island. -j Howe's attack. 

l^ Washington's escape. 
From New York to White ftains. 
Fall of Fort Washington. 





'275-1 


ui 


^ 




s . 


< 


ij i-. 


H 


< 'O 


^. 


c« ^ 




Z. ^ 


f^ 


o- 


^ 


"Z > 


Q 


< 




5S 




t-i 




> 



277, 27S. Washington's 



Retreat. 



279, 



l^ Retreat across New Jersey. 

■r^ ^x, ^ ,», i r Despondency of Americans. 
Battle of Trenton. <^ ,,, \. f . 

\\ ashmgton s victory. 



\ Washingtc 
r Cornwallis's change of plan. 
280. Battle of Princeton.^ Washington's critical position. 
[ His splendid generalship. 



WAR OF THE REVOLUTION. 



209 



PQ O 
« fa 



:Si. Plan of the British. 



iS3. 



Burgoyne's J 
Advance. 



First expedition from Canada. 

Burgoyne's plan. 

f Retreat of the Americans. 

Bennington. 

I Fort Stanwix. 

[^ Recruits for Schuyler's army. 

f Schuyler displaced. 

^ ^ .., /. « i First battle. 

285. Battles of Saratoga, i „ j , . , 
^ ** Second battle. 

[^ Surrender of Burgoyne. 

_ , ^ , f Territory recovered from British. 
Results of the I ' ^ r ^t, 1 • . 

„ , < Encouragement or the colonists. 

Surrender. ,. , ^ „ 

1^ Aid from r ranee. 

^, ^ ,, ^ .,. , f Howe's first intention. 
Plan of the British. -| , . td, -i j 1 u- 

l^ Advance on Philadelphia. 

^ . . , /. ^ , . r Howe's strategy. 
Battle of Brandywme. ^ ^ . ., J\- 
"^ (^ Result of the battle. 

f Philadelphia taken. 

Battle of Germantown. -=( Fight at Germantown. 

(^ Forts on the Delaware. 

f Sufferings at Valley Forge. 

Period of Gloom. <( The Conway Cabal. 

1^ Inefficiency of Congress. 

■r, ..• , ,. . ^T ^^ , f Howe recalled. 
British retire to New York. < t.,., ■, , ,. , 

(^ Philadelphia evacuated. 

f Conduct of Charles Lee. 

Battle of Monmouth. ■{ Washington's indignation. 

[ Result of the battle. 

, ,. „ f Wvoming and Cherrv Valley. 

Indian Massacres. < ^ ' . , ,, ^■',. 

[^ Punishment of the Indians. 

_ , , f Situation of the armies. 
War Transferred ' . • r.i j t 1 j 

-( Events m Rhode Island. 
to the South. i ^ .,• i i f ^ 

[^ British change of plan. 



297. Conquest of the Illinois 



r Claims to the region. 



29S. 
299. 

300. 



Country. 



Naval Forces of the 
United States. 



Clark and his troops. 
j The hazardous march. 
1^ Result. 
The Indians of the Southwest. 

f Xavy of Congress. 
-{ Naval forces of the states. 
1^ Privateers. 
Paul Jones's Victory. 



2IO 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



303- 



< 
g 

o 

< 
u 

K 
H 



Plan 

304' 

305- 

306. 

307- 
308. 

309- 
310. 

311- 

312. 
313- 

314- 

315- 
316. 
3^7- 

318. 
319- 

320. 

321. 
322. 
323- 



Events in the North. 



of the British. 

Fall of Savannah and Augusta. 

r Kettle Creek. 

Georgia Overrun. ^ Briar Creek. 

[ Result. 

Clinton's marauding expedition. 

Stony Point. 

Efforts to recapture Savannah. 

t:* 11 r /^t. t X f Clinton's advance. 
Fall of Charleston. <^ ^, 

[ 1 he surrender. 

„ ,, ^ ,. ^ f Elation of the British. 

South Carolina Overrun. < ,,.,. . . , 

[^ Militia leaders. 

f General Gates. 

Battle of Camden. <( Plan of the armies. 

[ Result of the battle. 

T^ xxt ^ T^- . r Advance into Mecklenburg county 
Battle of King's ^.. , ,, 

, . < Kme s Mountam. 

Mountain. 1 , *, 

l^ Results. 

Arnold's Treason. 

_ . _ , f His difficulties. 

Greene in Command. -^ ^ , 

(^ Subordinate officers. 

f Position of the armies. 

Battle of the Cowpens. -| Plans of the generals. 

(^ The battle. 

( Morgan's division. 

Greene's Retreat, -j Greene's main army. 

[ The escape. 

Battle of Guilford Court House. 

f Cornwallis's retreat. 

^ Hobkirk Hill. 

(^ Eutaw Springs. 

Plan of Cornwallis. 

-TT , • X . -r^i r The French fleet. 
Washington's Plan. < „^, , , 

1^ 1 he proposed march. 

f Cornwallis. 
Movements of the Armies. <| Washington. 

[ Clinton. 

The Surrender at Yorktown. 

•r» li. x XI. TT- J. r Iri United States. 

Results of the Victory. < ^ ^ t. • • 
1^ In Great Britain. 

Treaty of Peace. 



Georgia and the Carolinas 
Recovered. 



THE CONFEDERATION. 211 



II. THE CONFEDERATION (1781-89). 

326. Authority of Congress During the War The first 

Continental Congress (1774) claimed no political power. It 
was merely a committee of the different colonies to consult 
about their wrongs. At the beginning of the Revolution, the 
need of concerted action of all the colonies was so apparent 
that the Congress of 1775, by universal consent, began to exer- 
cise important powers of government relating to the manage- 
ment of the war. This Congress and its successors assumed 
control of the continental armies, appointed officers and en- 
listed troops, borrowed and issued money, declared the inde- 
pendence of the united colonies, and negotiated a treaty with 
France. All these and other powers it exercised on the 
authority of the vague and by no means uniform instructions 
of the different states to their delegates. Its measures had, in 
themselves, no authority over any one of the thirteen sover- 
eign and independent states, save in the willing obedience of 
each. It was six years after Congress began to exercise cer- 
tain powers of government before any constitution defining 
those powers was formally agreed upon. 

327. Adoption of the First Constitution. — We have seen 
(§ 272) that, at the time of the Declaration of Independence, 
Congress took steps to prepare a constitution for the United 
States. This constitution, called the Articles of Confederation, 
was to have no binding effect until all the states should ratify 
it. Most of the states did so at once. But Maryland refused 
her assent until the lands northwest of the Ohio should be sur- 
rendered by those states claiming them, and should be recog- 
nized as the common property of all the states, to be used in 
paying the debts contracted by Congress. She based her 
position on the grounds, (i) that the control of this region had 
been wrested from the French by the French and Indian War, 



212 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

in which all the states had shared ; (2) that the possession of 
such a vast territory would give an overshadowing influence to 
the few states claiming it. Thus it was 1781 before Maryland 
ratified the Articles. They then went into full effect. 

328. Nature of the Articles of Confederation. — The gov- 
ernment of the United States under the Articles of Confedera- 
tion was in the nature of a league between sovereign states for 
certain purposes. The Articles expressly declared that " each 
State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence." 
There was no president of the United States ; there were no 
United States courts. The powers of government were vested 
in a Congress which was composed of one house, its members 
elected for one year, and paid by their respective states. No 
state could be represented by less than two or more than seven 
members. The voting in Congress was by states, each state 
having one vote. The most important powers of Congress 
were to declare war, deal with foreign nations, establish post- 
offices, settle disputes between states, borrow money, and fix 
the sums to be raised by the different states in proportion to 
the value of the land and buildings in each. The power to 
coin and issue money was shared with the states. The con- 
sent of nine states was necessary to carry any important meas- 
ure.. No change in the Articles could be made without the 
approval of every state. 

329. Treaty with England. — The final treaty of peace with 
England (§ 323) was ratified by Congress in 1783. The boun- 
daries of the United States were fixed at Canada on the north 
(§ 297), the Mississippi River on the west, and Florida ex- 
tending west to the Mississippi on the south. The army was 
disbanded and the poorly paid soldiers returned to their 
homes. Washington appeared before Congress and resigned 
his office as commander-in-chief. Savannah, Charleston, and 
New York were evacuated by the British. It was twelve years 



TELE NORTH"SVEST TERRITORY was divided into the five 
following states (with Minnesota east of the Mississippi) : 1. Ohio, 
admitted lHOo ; 2. Indiana, admitted 1S16 ; o. Illinois, admitted 
1818 ; 4. Michigan, admitted IsSr ; 5. Wisconsin, admitted 1S48» 
(See note on map of U. S. irs3.) 




50 100 200 300 400 
Longitude West from 



THE CONFEDERATION. 21 3 

later, however, before Great Britain surrendered the western 
posts on the Canadian frontier. 

330. The Northwest Territory. — At the close of the 
Revolution, Virginia held, besides her present limits and those 
of West Virginia and Kentucky, all the vast domain from the 
Ohio River to the Great Lakes and the Mississippi (§ 297). Her 
claim to the Illinois Country, or the ''Northwest Territory," as 
it was afterward called, was based (i) on the limits fixed by 
her colonial charter of 1609, (2) on its conquest from the 
British by her tooops under Clarke, (3) upon its actual occupa- 
tion by her officers. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New 
York also made claim to parts of this region, chiefly on the 
basis of their colonial charters. When the Articles of Confed- 
eration were being adopted, Maryland made the bold sugges- 
tion that the whole territory be surrendered to Congress as the 
common property of all the states (§ 326). This suggestion 
was finally carried out. In 1784 Virginia generously ceded to 
Congress all territory northwest of the Ohio that was claimed 
by her. The other states likewise gave up their claims. The 
acceptance of the gift made it necessary for Congress to 
assume new and important powers in regard to the government 
of the ceded territory. It did much to strengthen the union 
between the states, and was one of the most momentous events 
in our history. 

331. The Ordinance of 1787. — The act of Congress pro- 
viding for the government of the Northwest Territory is known 
as the Ordinance of 1787. It provided that the territory might 
be divided into states, not exceeding five in number, whenever 
the population of a proposed state should reach sixty thousand. 
In the meantime the territory was to be governed by officers 
appointed by Congress. In this territory the property of 
parents dying without wills should be equally divided among 
the children. (The laws of several states at that time gave 



214 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the eldest son all the property ; in all other states he received 
a double share.) The Ordinance further provided for com- 
plete religious freedom. The rights of trial by jury and of the 
writ of habeas corpus were to be forever inviolable. Schools 
were to be encouraged, and slavery forever prohibited,^ though 
fugitive slaves from other states were to be returned to their 
owners. Few acts of Congress have had a more far-reaching 
effect than the Ordinance of 1787. It not only moulded to 
a certain extent the subsequent history of the great states 
carved from the Northwest Territory, but it served as a 
model for the government of future territories, and affected 
great national questions of the next century. 

332. The Southwest. — The western lands south of the 
Ohio were claimed by Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, and Georgia. In 1784, the inhabitants of the eastern 
part of the present State of Tennessee revolted from North 
Carolina and established a separate state, which they called 
Franklin. They elected John Sevier (hero of King's Mountain) 
governor, organized a Legislature, and sent a delegate to Con- 
gress. But North Carolina reestablished her authority, and, 
in 1790, ceded Tennessee Territory to the United States. 
South Carolina had given up her western claims in 1787. In 
1792 Virginia consented that Kentucky be formed into a sep- 
arate state. Georgia granted to the United States the terri- 
tory of Alabama and Mississippi in 1802. Where the ceded 
land did not at once become a state (as Kentucky) it was 
first organized into a territory with a government similar to 
that of the Northwest Territory. 

333. Navigation of the Mississippi. — How to carry their 
products to the markets of the world was a serious problem to 
the settlers on the western frontier. There were few roads 

1 This was the first limitation by law of the extension of slavery, and it was sup 
ported by every Southern member of Congress. 



THE CONFEDERATION. 



215 



across the mountains, and these were beset with difficulties 
and dangers. The Mississippi River became the great high- 
way of trade for the farmers of the west. But the territory on 
both banks of the river near its mouth was now owned by 
Spain (see map). That nation claimed the sole right to the 
navigation of the lower Mississippi, and threatened to tax all 
other than Spanish vessels passing the mouth of the stream. 
In 1786 a treaty with Spain was proposed in Congress which 
provided that in return for certain privileges to be granted 
by Spain to our commerce in other parts of the world, we 
surrender for twenty-five years our right to navigate the 
Mississippi. The proposition was at first considered favorably. 
At once a storm of indignation arose throughout the South 
and Southwest. The result was. Congress finally rejected 
the proposal. But the angry discussions over the matter 
called attention to the importance of establishing our control 
over the Mississippi. At the same time a bitter feeling was 
aroused in the South against the New England states, whose 
delegates in^Congress favored the proposed treaty. 

334. Finances of the Country. — The varying and uncer- 
tain value of money was a continual source of distress from 
the time of the Declaration of 
Independence to the adoption 
of our present Constitution. 
Congress had no power to tax 
the people. Funds for the 
expenses of the war were ob- 
tained from three sources : 
(i) The manufacture of paper 
money by authority of Con- 
gress ; (2) grants of money 
by the different states ; (3) 
loans from Spain, France, and Holland, and from wealthy 
citizens of our own country (notably Robert Morris, of Penn- 




Continental Money. 



2l6 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



sylvania, whose generous aid to the destitute army just before 
the battle of Trenton, made that victory possible). The first 
issue of " Continental currency " was accepted by the people 
at its face value. But as the weakness of Congress became 
apparent, and the paper money continued to be issued, it rap- 
idly decreased in value. Laws were passed to make the peo- 
ple accept the paper money as equal in value to gold. But by 
the middle of the war a Spanish silver dollar was worth forty of 
the paper dollars. A little later it took three paper dollars to 
equal one cent. By the close of the war the Continental money, 
having lost its value entirely, disappeared from circulation, and 
Congress issued no more. To describe an utterly worthless 

object, people said 
it was "not worth a 
Continental." The 
different states is- 
sued paper money 
with a similar result. 
All sorts of gold, sil- 
ver, and copper coins 
of England, Spain, 
France, and Holland were in circulation, such as ninepences, 
doubloons, pistoles, bits,^ pistareens, and picayunes. It was not 
until 1786 that Congress coined any money. Then the silver 
dollar (containing 375xVo gi'ains of silver), with the present 
subdivisions of dimes and cents, was made the unit of value. 
This simple system was planned by Thomas Jefferson and 
Gouverneur Morris. 

335. Difficulties. — The varying standards of money in the 
different states threw business into hopeless confusion. There 
was no uniformity in the regulation of commerce. The states 

1 The " bit " was a Spanish and West Indian coin of the value of ten to twelve- 
and-a-half cents. In some of the Western states to-day " two-bits," " four-bits," and 
" six-bits " are common terms to designate twenty-five, fifty, and seventy-five cents. 




Pine-Tree Shilling of Massachusetts. 



THE CONFEDERATION. 21/ 

quarreled about the duties on imported goods. For example, 
New York having levied a heavy duty on certain articles im- 
ported from New Jersey, that state retaliated by imposing a 
tax of fifteen hundred dollars a year on a New York light- 
house situated on the New Jersey coast. In Massachusetts 
the poorer classes demanded that the state issue paper money. 
The Legislature refused, and at the same time appropriated ad- 
ditional funds to Congress. The people, already heavily taxed, 
rose in rebellion under Daniel Shays, an officer of the Revolu- 
tion. The governor called out four thousand troops, and 
placed them under General Lincoln. After some bloodshed, 
" Shays's Rebellion " was suppressed. 

336. Weakness of the Government. — It was soon found 
that the prosperity and good government of the people were 
impossible under the Articles of Confederation. We have seen 
that the states alone had the power of taxation. To provide 
for the running expenses of the government. Congress could 
only recommend to each state to pay its share of the total sum 
needed each year. Sometimes a state failed to pay its appor- 
tionment. Few states were prompt. The result was that 
Congress was constantly begging foreign nations for loans, 
while it got deeper and deeper into debt. In short. Congress 
had no power to act directly upon the people. It could act 
only upon the states, and then could not enforce obedience. 
In the words of a statesman of the time, '' Congress may make 
and consider treaties, but they can only recommend the ob- 
servance of them. They may appoint ambassadors, but they 
cannot defray their expenses. They may borrow money on 
the faith of the Union, but they cannot pay a dollar. They 
may coin money, but they cannot buy an ounce of bullion. 
They may make war and determine what troops are necessary, 
but they cannot raise a single soldier. In short, they may de- 
clare everything, but they can do nothing." 



2l8 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

337. Efforts to Revise the Articles. — In 1785 commission- 
ers from Virginia and Maryland met to arrange for a joint use 
of the Potomac. This meeting suggested the idea of a larger 
meeting of representatives from all the states, to form some 
plan to regulate commerce, so that states would be prevented 
from injuring each other's trade. Accordingly, in 1786 Vir- 
ginia issued a call to all the states to send delegates to a con- 
vention to consult about a uniform system of duties. The con- 
vention met at AnnapoHs, Maryland, but as only five states 
were represented it did nothing further than to recommend that 
all the states send delegates to a convention to meet the fol- 
lowing year, to devise such changes in the Articles of Confed- 
eration as, when agreed to by Congress and ratified by every 
state, would render them adequate to the needs of the coun- 
try. Congress approved this idea. The grave defects of the 
Articles had become evident to every one. Before the ap- 
pointed time for the convention twelve states had chosen 
delegates. 

338. The Constitutional Convention. — The convention met 
in Philadelphia on May 14, 1787. Judged by the results of its 
work, no more important meeting was ever held in the history 
of the world. It numbered fifty-five members,^ representing 
every state except Rhode Island. Washington was chosen 
presiding officer. It was agreed that each state should have 
one vote, and that the proceedings should be secret, lest any 
disagreement in the convention becoming known should pre- 
vent the acceptance of the result by the people. The conven- 
tion had been called to revise the old Articles of Confedera- 
tion, but so many changes were found necessary that it was 
soon decided to prepare an entirely new constitution. Here 

1 Among the delegates were George Washington and James Madison, of Virginia ; 
Hamilton, of New York ; Franklin, of Pennsylvania ; Rutledge and the Pinckneys, 
of South Carolina. 




BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 



THE CONFEDERATION. 2I9 

many difficulties were encountered from the opposing views of 
members. The small states demanded that all the states 
should have equal power in the new government. The large 
states argued that their greater population and wealth entitled 
them to a larger representation. It was finally agreed that 
the new Congress should be composed of two houses, in one 
of which all the states should have equal representation, while 
in the other representation should depend on population. How 
to count the slaves in determining the representation of a state, 
and whether the importation of slaves should be forbidden were 
also vexed questions. At almost every step compromises had to 
be made. Several times the convention seemed utterly unable to 
agree. On one such occasion it was proposed by Franklin that 
thereafter the daily sessions be opened with prayer for divine 
guidance. After four months of labor the convention finished its 
work, and the proposed constitution was signed by the delegates. 

339. Adoption of the Constitution. — The constitution pro- 
vided that when the conventions of as many as nine states 
should have ratified it, it should go into effect between the 
states so ratifying. Accordingly, the proposed constitution, 
having been first submitted to Congress, was sent to the people 
of the dift'erent states for their approval or rejection. Six 
states, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connec- 
ticut, and ^Maryland, gave their assent unanimously, or with 
little opposition. In Massachusetts, South Carolina, New 
Hampshire, Virginia, and New York, there was a strong oppo- 
sition and a hard fight. These states finally gave their assent, 
but at the same time insisted upon the adoption of certain 
amendments defining more particularly the rights of the states 
and of the people. New York and Virginia in their acts of 
ratification declared that the powers of government surrendered 
by them might be reassumed whenever they were used to the 
injury or oppression of the people. By the end of July, 1788, 



220 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the assent of the eleven states above mentioned had been 
given, and Congress set March 4, 1789, as the day when the 
new government should go into operation. The convention of 
North Carolina refused to adopt the constitution until a bill of 
rights should be added, and the people of Rhode Island over- 
whelmingly rejected it. Thus these two states saw their eleven 
sisters withdraw from the Union under the Articles of Confed- 
eration, and set up a new government.^ 

340. Nature of the New Government. — The Articles of 
Confederation established only one department of government, 
— the legislative. They provided no courts to interpret the laws 
of Congress, and no executive officers to enforce them. Under 
the new constitution there were to be three separate and dis- 
tinct departments, — legislative, executive, and judicial, just as 
already existed in the state governments. At the same time a 
new and strange idea was adopted — to limit the powers of the 
federal government to certain specified spheres, but within 
those spheres to permit it to act directly upon the people (in- 
stead of upon the states), and to be supreme. All powers not 
surrendered to the federal government by the states were to 
be retained by them.'-^ This constitution, with few changes, has 
continued in force to the present time. Its leading features are 
as follows : 

341. The Legislative Department. — Congress consists of 
two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. 
In the Senate each state is entitled to two members, while in 
the House the representation of any state depends upon its 

1 After maintaining for a time a separate and independent position, North 
Carolina joined the new Union November, 1789, and Rhode Island in May, 1790. 
Rhode Island, like Virginia and New York, accompanied her final ratification by a 
declaration that all the powers of government might be reassumed by her people. 

2 Among these powers surrendered to the general government by the states were 
the powers to levy a tariff and to coin money, which had been the source of so much 
dissatisfaction under the Articles. 



THE CONFEDERATION. 221 

population (in which at first all free persons and three-fifths 
of the slaves were counted). Senators are chosen by the 
state Legislatures, and serve six years. Representatives are 
elected directly by the people, and serve two years. Congress 
is given the power to lay taxes, borrow money, regulate 
commerce, coin money, establish post-offices, declare war, raise 
and support armies and navies. The states are forbidden to 
do any of these things except to tax themselves, borrow money, 
and use their own militia. To become a law a bill must pass 
both houses of Congress and be signed by the president. 
Should the president veto a bill within ten days after its 
passage, it must be again passed by a two-thirds vote before it 
can become a law. Treaties made by the president must be 
approved by the Senate. 

342. The Executive Department. — The president of the 
United States is chosen for a term of four years by electors, 
who are appointed from each state in such manner as the legis- 
lature thereof may direct. (In all the states, at present, these 
electors are elected by the people.) The president is given 
power to enforce the laws of Congress. He is commander-in- 
chief of the army and navy, and appoints most of the public 
officers. With the consent of the Senate, he makes treaties 
with foreign nations. If the president should fail to perform 
his duty he may be impeached (accused) by the House of 
Representatives, and tried and removed by the Senate. Should 
he die, resign, be removed, or become unable to act, the vice- 
president takes his place. Otherwise the vice-president pre- 
sides over the Senate, but cannot vote in that body except in 
case of a tie. 

343. The Judicial Department. — To interpret the laws of 
Congress the constitution provides one Supreme Court and 
such inferior courts as Congress may establish. The judges 
are appointed by the president with the approval of the Senate, 



222 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

and hold their office for Hfe, unless removed for misconduct. 
No cases can be tried before a United States court except : 
(i) Those involving the Constitution of the United States, or the 
laws or treaties of Congress ; (2) those affecting ambassadors 
or foreigners; (3) controversies to which either the United 
States or a state is a party ; (4) controversies between citizens 
of different states. 

344. Other Requirements. — Each state shall allow citizens 
of other states equal privileges with its own. Slaves escaping 
into another state shall be returned to their owners (void by 
Thirteenth Amendment). Congress is given power to govern 
the territories. The United States shall see that each state 
maintains a republican form of government. The Constitution 
may be changed with the consent of three-fourths of the states. 

345. Summary of Period of Articles of Confederation. — With the 

assent of Maryland, in 1781, the Articles of Confederation went into effect. 
The treaty of peace with Great Britain was concluded in 1783. The North- 
west Territory was ceded to Congress by Virginia and other states claim- 
ing it, and in 1787 Congress adopted the famous " Ordinance " for its gov- 
ernment. The inhabitants of eastern Tennessee set up a separate state 
government, which they maintained for a few years, until North Carolina 
reestablished her authority over them. Through lack of a financial system, 
quarrels between states, and the weakness of Congress, the country was 
drifting towards anarchy. In 1787 delegates from twelve states met in 
Philadelphia to revise the Articles. The new constitution prepared by 
them went into effect in 1789, over eleven states that had then ratified it. 
North Carolina and Rhode Island joined the new Union within the next 
two years. 

346. Thought Questions. — How did Maryland delay the adoption of 
the Articles of Confederation ? How did her action result in a closer 
union of the states at last } How many territories in the United States 
to-day ? How are the governors of these territories chosen ? Where was 
the State of Franklin, and when did it exist ? Why should the New Eng- 
enders favor the treaty with Spain ? Why should the South and West 
oppose it.? Why was the Continental money of so little value? Why is 
our paper money now worth as much as gold ? Mention some of the com- 



THE CONFEDERATION. 223 

promises in the constitutional convention. Was the action of the eleven 
states that withdrew from the Union under the Confederation a "secession".^ 
What was the justification of their action.-' Mention three important 
differences between the government under the Articles and that under the 
Constitution. 



Topical Analysis (the Confederation). 

^ . ,, ., r ^ r The first Continental Congress. 

326. Authority of Congress. < ^ , • , 

1^ Congress durmg the war. 

f Framing of the Articles. 

327, 328. Articles of Confederation. ■{ Delay in ratification. 

[ Nature of the Articles. 
( Boundaries. 

329. Treaty witli England. <J Disbanding of the army. 

[^ Departure of British troops. 
r Claims of different states. 

330. The Northwest Territory. -<J Maryland's proposition. 

[ Gift of the territory. 

_, _ _. /• „ r Its provisions. 

33.. The Ordinance of 1787. I „^^g^^,^ 

f Claims of the states. 

332. The Southwest. <i The State of Franklin. 

(^ Grants by the states. 

f Importance to farmers of the West. 

333. The Mississippi River. ■{ Proposed treaty with Spain. 

[ Sectional feeling. 
Funds for the war. 
Continental currency. 
Foreign coins. 
First coinage by Congress. 



334. Finances. 



f Quarrels between states. 
^ Sha 



335» 336- Difficulties of the Government. ^ Shays's rebellion. 

1^ Weakness of Congress. 
2Z7- Efforts to revise J The Virginia and Maryland Commission. 
the Articles. \ The Annapolis Convention. 

Meeting of the Philadelphia convention. 
Proceedings of the convention. 
The work completed. 



338. Framing of the 
Constitution. 



224 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



340. Nature of the Constitution. ^ 



Conditions for adoption. 
339. Adoption of the Constitution. ^ Action of the states. 

(^ North Carolina and Rhode Island. 
Compared with the Articles. 
The new idea. 
f Senators. 
, . , ,. ^ , , ! Representatives. 
34.. Legislative Department. ^ p„„,,^ „; congress. 

i. Method of passing laws. 
f Election of president. 

342. Executive Department. <\ Powers of president. 

(^ Vice-president. 
f United States courts. 

343. Judicial Department. •{ Judges of United States courts. 

(^ Jurisdiction of United States courts. 

344. Other Requirements. 





President's Fla 




Adiuiral's Flas 



IMTED STATES COAT OF AK3IS 




NATIONAL ENSIGN 




n 



Rovoiiue Eiisitfii 




Yacht Ensicii 



THE UNION OF THE STATES. —DEVELOPMENT. 
DIVISION. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 

(Washington to J. Q. Adams.) 

Washington's AD^fINISTRATION. 

Two Terms: 17S9-1797. 

347. Services and Character of the First President. — 

When the time came to elect a president, under the new Constitu- 
tion, all eyes were turned to George Washington. Born in 




Viro-inia, February 22, 1732, Washington was descended from 
one of the Cavalier families that had emigrated from England 
to Virginia during the period of Cromwell's rule. He received 



226 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

a fair English education, and became a surveyor. The hard- 
ships and dangers of his work on the wilderness frontier devel- 
oped his powers, while the ability and integrity he displayed 
attracted public notice. By the death of an elder brother, he 
came into possession of the estate of Mount Vernon, on the 
Potomac, not far from the present city of Washington. He 
married Mrs. Martha Custis, a rich widow. His services in 
the French and Indian War first brought him into prominence 
as a soldier. He was member of Congress from Virginia when 
chosen commander-in-chief of the armies of the united colonies. 
His military genius, his incorruptible patriotism, his splendid 
reserve-power in the midst of discouragements entitle him 
to be called the "soul of the Revolution." President of the 
convention of 1787, his influence secured the final adoption of 
the Constitution. He was chosen first president of the United 
States by the unanimous vote of the electors.^ 

348. The Inauguration. — A few days after he had received 
notice of his election, Washington left his home at Mount 
Vernon in Virginia, and set out for New York, which was 
then the capital. Accompanied by friends, he traveled across 
the country in a coach. The journey occupied several days 
and was one grand triumph. Feasts, balls, and other enter- 
tainments in his honor were given in the various cities through 
which he passed ; arches were built, streets were decorated 
with flags and flowers, and everything was done to show the 
respect and loyalty the people felt for "the savior of the 
country." Though the fourth of March was the day set for the 
inauguration, the slow methods of travel delayed the ceremony 
till April 30. 

349. Political Parties. — Those who had supported the new 
Constitution were called Federalists, those who had opposed it 

1 See Article II, Section I, clauses 2 and 3 of the Constitution, and Article XII of 
the Amendments. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 227 

Anti- Federalists. The Federalists believed in a strong central 
government that should have ample power to lay and collect 
taxes, raise armies, and transact the business of the govern- 
ment promptly and independently. The Anti- Federalists be- 
lieved that the people of the states, through the states, were 
the source of power, that government should be instituted 
solely for their convenience and service, and that it must be 
subject at all times to the voice of the people. 

After the Constitution was adopted, the Federalists were 
called " Loose Constructionists " because they put a very broad 
construction on the general provisions of the Constitution ^ and 
claimed rights and powers of government not specifically 
granted. The Anti- Federalists were called " Strict Construc- 
tionists " because they insisted upon the letter of the Constitu- 
tion and denied to the Federal government any powers except 
those specifically granted by the Constitution. The Federalists 
were willing to encroach upon the powers of the states. The 
Anti-Federalists believed that the general government should 
have only such limited powers as should be specifically dele- 
gated to it by the states. 

350. The New Nation. — When our country took its first step 
as a nation it was not rich nor powerful. In the thirteen states, 
the first census showed a population of not quite four millions.^ 
The area of the country then was not quite four times that of 
the State of Texas to-day. But the patriots who had risked 
" their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor " ^ to create 
the new republic were more anxious to lead free and manly 
lives than they were to be rich and powerful. They cared more 
for the character of the nation that would result from their acts 
than for its size, population, or wealth. 

1 See Constitution, Article I, Section VIII, last Clause. 

2 In 1890, each of two states — Pennsylvania and New York — had a greater pop 
ulation than the whole country in 1790. 

3 See the concluding clause of the Declaration of Independence, § 271. 



228 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY 



351. The First Cabinet. — George Washington appreciated 
the necessirv of moving forward slowly and carefully. He felt 
keenly and bore bravely the responsibilit}- of chief otncer of the 
nation. He leaned toward the new Federalist pam. but called 
to his cabinet, after Congress had authorized its formation.^ 
able leaders from both parties. Thomas Jefferson, the most 
distinguished opponent of the Federalist plans and theories, 
was made secretan" of state. Alexander Hamilton," the leader 

of the Federalist pam\ who 
afterwards added to his re- 
putation as a great parr\- 
leader the more solid and 
worthy one of a great finan- 
cier, was given the treasure- 
department. General Henry 
Knox, a Federalist of Massa- 
chusetts, became secretar}- 
of war. Edmund Randolph, 
of Virginia, who was opposed 
to many of the strong-govern- 
ment theories of the Federal- 
ists, was appointed attorney 
general. There was oppor- 
tunit}* in this cabinet for the leaders of the opposing panics to 
unite on plans and policies and to harmonize contiicting theories 
of government : but there was opportunity', also, for further and 
more vital disagreement when the theories were to be put in 

* The president's calanet is not named in the constitution. It includes the heads 
of departments who constitute the president's advisers. 

2 Hamilton was one of the authors of the F<fJrritiisi. This was a publication 
founded to aid in securing the adoption of the Constitution. It contained papers 
^Titten by H.amilton. Madison, and Jay, e:xplaining and advocating the provisions of 
the Constitution. Washington appointed Jay chief-justice of the Supreme Court- 
Madison was a member of the first Congress. 

8 After a portrait by Trumbull, by permission, from Lodge's Works of Alex.\ndex 
Hamilton. 




Alexander Hamilton.' 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMEXT. 229 

practice and the country was to take its course this way oi that. 
One does not need to know nuich of politics to know that further 
disagreement was most likely ; and, indeed, this was the result. 
The breach between the factions was widened as time went on. 
Since the time of Washington, cabinets have been formed 
usually from tJie part}- that elects tlie president. 

352. Financial Plans. — The first thing to be done was to 
raise money to pay tlie expenses of the new government. For 
this purpose. Congress passed a bill laying taxes on imports. A 
large income was the result To the next Congress. Hamilton 
proposed that we should pay our debts. These debts were 
divided into three classes: (i) We owed abroad about $13,000.- 
000, that we had borrowed ; (2) We owed to our own countr}- 
men about $42,500,000 for debts contracted in funhering the 
Revolution ; (^3) it was proposed tliat Congress pay tlie debts 
incurred by the separate states in the prosecution of the war, 
amounting in the aggregate to about $25,000,000. To tlie pav- 
ment of the foreign debt all agreed. The proposition to pay 
the immense debt due our own countr^nnen caused wide-spread 
speculation in the depreciated securities of these debts, and 
there was considerable opposition to the measure : in the end it 
was carried. Hamilton's plan to assume the debts of the states 
caused a great surprise to the countr}* and aroused biner oupo- 
sition. But after a hard struggle and some bargaining.* this, 
too. was carried. 

The tax on imports, though it raised a large revenue, did not 
enable us to pay these large debts as rapidlv as was wished. 

* The Xorthem states were, in the main, in favor of the Federal government pay- 
ing the state debts ; most of the Southern states believed that each state should be 
nesptonsible for its own debt. The North ■wanted the new permaneni c:ipital : the 
South also wanted it- Some Xorthem congressmen voted for a Southern location of 
the cajHtal in exchange for some Southern votes in favor of assumption of the state 
debts. B>' this trade. Hamilton's third j>roposition carried, and by it the permanent 
capital — Washington — was located on the Potomac 



230 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

To supplement the tariff revenue, a special tax, or excise, was 
imposed on spirits. 

A national bank, that was to be the financial agent of the 
government, and a mint were established for the purpose of 
giving us a national currency. With the establishment of the 
mint, Jefferson's system of decimal currency was put in opera- 
tion and has proven itself to be the best in the world. 

353. The Whiskey Insurrection. — The tax on spirits Mas 
very unpopular with those who had to pay it. In western Penn- 
sylvania, where there were many stills and where whiskey was 
used in place of money, the opposition to the tax was very 
bitter. The people refused to pay the tax ; government in- 
spectors were mobbed ; secret societies were formed to resist 
the execution of the law. A call to arms raised a band of 2000 
insurgents who marched to Pittsburg, but committed no depre- 
dations. Washington called out the militia of Pennsylvania, 
New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia to put down the insurrec- 
tion ; 15,000 troops took the field. Hamilton, who was anxious 
to vindicate the government's power to lay the tax, accom- 
panied the troops. But before this force reached the scene of 
the disturbances, the ringleaders of the insurrection had fled. 
The people made no resistance but promptly took the oath of 
allegiance. A few arrests and convictions were made, but the 
president pardoned all who were implicated and the trouble 
ceased. The government had shown its power to put down 
any ordinary insurrection. 

354. Extension of the Frontier. — New States. — Hostile 
tribes had long since been driven away from the sea-board, and 
east of the Alleghanies there was no further trouble from them. 
But adventurous pioneers pushed beyond the mountains into 
the Western wilderness ; and every inch of their progress was 
disputed by the old enemy. Daniel Boone and his followers 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 



231 



had established themselves in territory that is now included in 
the State of Kentucky. Settlements had been made in what is 
now Cincinnati, and at other points along the Ohio. There 
were so many massacres of settlers in the Kentucky territory 
that it came to be called ''the Dark and Bloody Ground." 
Washington, when he became the executive of the new nation, 
determined to protect these pioneers. In his early life he had 
become familiar with this Western country and was interested 




Fort Washington (Site of Cincinnati). 

in its development. He was also familiar with Indian warfare 
and knew its cruel and treacherous methods. General Harmer 
was sent against the hostile tribes of the Ohio region in 1790; 
but he was surprised and defeated. Next year. General St. 
Claire was sent against them with more than two thousand 
troops. He had been solemnly advised and warned by Wash- 
ington, but he allowed himself to be ambushed and his army 
was cut to pieces. "Mad" Anthony Wayne, the hero of Stony 
Point (§ 306), was now put in command of the army. He 
defeated a large force of Indians on the Maumee (1794). 
A treaty of peace followed and this region was cleared of 
hostile forces. With greater security, immigrants poured into 



232 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the Ohio region. Kentucky was admitted into the Union in 
1792. Tennessee, still furtlier west and south, came in in 
1796. Vermont had been admitted in 1791, so that at the 
close of Washington's second term, the Union consisted of 
sixteen states. 

355. Foreign Relations. — The Federalist party was in strong 
svmpatliy with tlie principles and ceremonious methods of the 
English government ; tlie Republicans ^ took tlie new republic of 
the French for their model, were jealous of tlie rights of the 
people, opposed all forms and ceremonies, and were afraid that 
tlie national government would assume too much power. When 
the French became involved in a war with England (1793) tliey 
asked for assistance from their old friends of the United States. 
Citizen Genet was sent to this country to solicit aid. Many of 
the Federalists sided with England, while the Republicans were 
enthusiastic for France. Washington, after carefully reviewing 
the situation, declared that the United States would be neutral. 
This decision disappointed some of the Federalists, and raised 
an outcry from the Republicans. Genet, after tlie declaration 
by the president, appealed to the people. He stirred up all the 
ill-feeling he could, and altogether acted in such an insolent 
way that he lost the approval of many Republicans who had 
formerly supported him. Washington objected to Genet's 
course, and he was soon recalled by his government. But the 
feelings that had been aroused during the controversy made 
the differences between the two parties more pronounced. 
Later (in 1795) the treaty with England,- secured by Chief- 

1 After the Constitution was adopted, and the government for which it provided 
was inaugurated, the term Anti-Federalist was no longer applicable, as all active op- 
position to the Constitution soon ceased. But there was a strong party, led chiefly by 
those who had been Anti-Federalists, who (about i;9i) took the name of the " Repub- 
lican " party. This Republican party was therefore the successor of the Anti- Feder- 
alist party. 

2 The treaty contained twenty-eight sections, and held agreements upon many mat- 
ters of dispute between the two countries. Peace was declared established ; the 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 233 

Justice Jay, was bitterly attacked by the Republicans, and 
could not be warmly defended by the Federalists. It was not 
satisfactory to anybody, but Washington thought the terms the 
best that could be obtained at the time. But party-feeling ran 
so high over it that Washington's private character was at- 
tacked, and he became so worried by violent abuse that he 
declared he had rather be in his grave than in the presidency. 

356. The Cotton-Gin. — A government can do nothing but 
plan for the prosperity of the people ; the prosperity is won by 
the industry and good judgment of the people themselves. The 
people of the United States have been not only industrious and 
thrifty but they have been fertile in the invention of labor-sav- 
ing, wealth-producing machinery. One of the most useful 
machines ever invented in our country is the cotton-gin, which 
came into use during Washington's administration. Eli Whit- 
ney, the inventor, was reared in Massachusetts. He spent his 
youth in going to school and in making walking-canes, nails, 
and pins. But after being graduated from Yale College he be- 
came a teacher in the family of General Nathaniel Greene, resid- 
ing near Savannah. While here his attention was called to the 
difficulty of separating the seed of cotton from the fiber. The 
value of cotton in making cloth was well known, and many 
planters grew patches of it; but as one man could separate but a 
pound of cotton fiber a day, 
the cloth was very expen- 
sive. Whitney set to work 
to construct a machine that 
would do this task of sepa- 




ration 


more rapidly. The 


•V " 


result 


was a cotton-gin 


Whitney's First Contrivance for Pulling off 


(" gin 


' is from engine) 


the Cotton Seeds. 



Mississippi was declared open to both countries ; the northern boundary of the 
United States was again defined ; the injury done American commerce was to be 
paid for, etc. 



234 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

which would separate a thousand pounds of fiber a day. A 
new industry was given to the country. Cotton-growing 
developed in the Southern states till it became their chief 
industry, and now they furnish more cotton than the remainder 
of the world. The manufacture of cotton-cloth became an im- 
portant industry in the New England states. Much of our 
cotton is shipped to England for manufacture. 

357. The Second Term. — When Washington closed his first 
term he was again unanimously elected to the presidency. At 
the end of his second term he was asked to become a candidate 
for a third term, but refused. He kept the respect of the 
better elements of both parties throughout his official life, but 
he was unable to harmonize the differences of the two parties 
as he had hoped to do. 

358. Condition of the Country. — The messenger who car- 
ried Washington the notice of his election rode on horseback. 
The overland traveling of the time was done by means of horses. 
In many sections there were good roads with inns at frequent 
intervals. Steamboats had not been invented, and there was 
not a mile of railway in the United States. News was carried 
by mounted messengers, and of course required considerable 
time to reach all parts of the country. There were no 
telegraph or telephone lines till many years later. Oxen 
and horses were used for drawing loads; mules were very 
rare, the majority of the people never having seen one. 
Cast-iron plows had not been invented, and riding-plows and 
steam-plows were yet many years in the future. A house- 
wife would not have known what to do with a cooking-stove, 
and heating-stoves were extremely rare. \\'ood was used for 
fuel everywhere but at the forge, where charcoal was substi- 
tuted. One of the school-books, the " New England Primer," 
contained the Lord's Prayer, the catechism, hymns, and so on. 
The pupil wrote with a quill pen made by the teacher, or by 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 235 

himself, if he was skillful enough. Slate-pencils were whittled 
out of "soap" stone. Lead was sometimes used for marking; 
our graphite " lead " pencil was unknown. New York, the 
first capital of our country, had a population of about fifty 
thousand souls. 

359. Summary. — When the first president took his seat our population 
was not quite four millions. The first cabinet was formed by the selection of 
leaders from both parties. The financial policy proposed by Hamilton gave 
us money to pay our debts and establish our credit with other nations. 
After the Indians were defeated emigration to the western country increased 
rapidly. Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee were admitted to the Union. 
A new treaty was made with England. The cotton-gin was invented, and 
cotton eventually became the chief crop of the Southern states. 

360. Thought Questions. — Name the leading political parties to-day. 
Which one corresponds most closely in its beliefs to the Federalist party .'' 
to the Anti-Federalist party ? What was our total public debt at the 
beginning of Washington's administration ? Compare this with the 
national debt to-day. What do you think of Washington's refusal to aid 
France? Give reasons for your opinion. What do you consider the most 
important event of this administration .-* Why .'* 



John Ad.\ims's Administration. 

One Term: 1797-1801. 

361. Services and Character of the New President. — 

John Adams, of Massachusetts, was one of the ablest and most 
fearless of the Revolutionary patriots. In all the stormy scenes 
preceding the Declaration of Independence, he played an 
important part. He was a delegate to both of the Continental 
Congresses. He was'the chief debater in defending the Declara- 
tion of Independence before Congress. He urged the selection 
of Washington for commander-in-chief of the army. He was 
minister to France in 1778. He was one of the commis- 
sioners who arranged a treaty of peace with Great Britain after 



236 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



our independence was acknowledged. In 1785, Congress sent 
him as minister to England, and the king had to receive as 
our representative a conspicuous leader of the revolution that 
had lost the crown the American colonies. He was the first 
vice-president and was a member of the Federalist party. 

362. Change of the Capital. — Adams was inaugurated in 
Philadelphia, to which place the capital had been removed from 
New York. But during this administration the capital was 
permanently located at a site on the Potomac that had been 




Washington 100 Years Ago. 

chosen by Washington. This site was at the time nothing but 
a straggling settlement, neighbors being as much as a mile 
apart. The District of Columbia, in which the capital is 
situated, was presented to the United States by Virginia and 
Maryland. It was originally a district ten miles square, on 
both banks of the Potomac. The Virginia grant, on the 
southern bank, was afterwards returned. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 



237 



363. Renewed Trouble with France. — Early in Adams's 
administration, the trouble with France took a more serious 
turn. The Directory/ feeling incensed that the United States 
persisted in a neutral course, ordered our minister out of the 
country. The president called an extra session of Congress, 
and laid the matter before this body. It was decided to send 
an embassy to France to treat with the Directory if any reason- 
able terms could be made. Three envoys, two Federalists and 
one Republican, were sent to France. They were coldly 
received, and little attempt was made by the Directory to reach' 




Washington at the Present Time. 



an agreement. Finally the envoys were informed in a rounda- 
bout way that if the United States would pay a certain sum of 
money, a satisfactory treaty would be made. The envoys 
indignantly rejected the idea of paying money in the way of a 
bribe. One of them ^ said the United States " would raise mil- 

1 France had just gone through a bloody revolution, and had dethroned and be- 
headed her king. A new constitution had been adopted which placed the executive 
branch of the government in the hands of a Directory composed of five members. 

2 Charles Pinckney. 



238 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



lions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." The two 
Federalist envoys were ordered out of the country, but Elbridge 
Gerry, who was a Republican, was invited to remain. In a short 
time, however, this last envoy came home without having effected 
anything. In the meantime, whenever opportunity offered, the 
French vessels captured American merchantmen on the high 




John Adams. 

seas and took them home and sold their cargoes. These 
things meant war, and the United States prudently began to 
defend herself. The treaties with France were annulled. 
American men-of-war were directed to capture any French 
vessel that interfered with our commerce. Steps were taken 
to raise an army, and Washington was made commander-in- 
chief.^ 



^ During Jackson's administration France paid ^5,000,000 for the injury done our 
commerce at this time. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 239 

364. Death of Washington. — But Washington's services to 
his country were ended. He died December 14, 1799. The 
whole country went into mourning. England and France 
made public acknowledgment of their great respect for him. 
One of the resolutions introduced in Congress said he was 
" first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his 
fellow-citizens." No one has arisen to dispute this proud posi- 
tion with him. 

365. The Alien and Sedition Laws. — At the same time, 
Congress made two laws that ought never to have been proposed. 
The Alien Law authorized the president to banish, without 
trial, any foreigner whom he thought dangerous to the peace 
and liberty of the country. The Sedition Law imposed a 
heavy fine upon those who should combine or conspire to- 
gether to oppose ai*y measure of government, and upon those 
who should utter any false, scandalous, or malicious writings 
against the authorities of our government. 

366. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. — The Alien 
and Sedition Laws had been bitterly opposed by the Republi- 
cans in Congress. It was held that the Sedition Law was an 
open violation of the first amendment of the Constitution, and 
that the right of trial by jury that was guaranteed by the Con- 
stitution was denied in the Alien Law. Prosecutions ^ under the 
Sedition Law aroused the fiercest indignation. The matter 
was taken up by the Legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky. 
These Legislatures declared in resolutions ^ that the Union was 
a compact between the states, and that beyond the well-defined 
powers delegated to it the general government had no right to 

' Matthew Lyon, of Vermont, while a candidate for Congress, was arrested for 
accusing the president of having a " thirst for ridiculous pomp, foolish adulation, 
and selfish avarice." He was imprisoned and fined. He was elected to Congress, 
but was obliged to serve his term of imprisonment before he could take his seat. 
Editors of several papers were imprisoned and fined for criticising the administration. 

2 Madison wrote the Virginia Resolutions ; Jefferson, the Kentucky Resolutions 



240 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Step; that the Alien and Sedition Laws were an usurpation of 
power in direct violation of the Constitution ; that it was the 
duty of the states to interpose and maintain their rights against 
the encroachment of the federal power. They asserted the 
right of the states to judge of violations of the Constitution 
and of the mode and measure of redress. The two laws caused 
the defeat of the Federalist party, that had passed them and 
was active in their execution. 

367. A New Treaty. — In iSoo, Napoleon Bonaparte, who 
had secured control of the French government, received a new 
embassy from our country in the most cordial manner. A 
treaty vowing " firm and universal peace " between France and 
the United States was soon effected. The question of pay- 
ment for the confiscation of some of our merchant-vessels was 
left to future negotiation. 

368. Election of a New President. — The Constitution pro- 
vided that the electors should vote for two candidates for presi- 
dent ; that the candidate receiving the highest number of votes — 
if a majority — should be president, and the one receiving the 
next highest number should be vice-president. In the election 
of a successor to Adams, Jeft'erson and Burr, both belonging to 
the same party, each had a majority of the votes, each receiving 
seventy-three. It fell upon the House of Representatives to 
decide between them, each state having one vote. In the 
House, Jefferson had the greater number of votes from the 
beginning, but it was some time before he had a majority of 
all the votes. Burr became vice-president. It was seen that 
our method of electing a president was very faulty. The Con- 
stitution was amended (1804), so that electors vote for presi- 
dent and vice-president separately. 

369. Summary. — Washington, on the Potomac, became the capital. 
France, under the Directory, refused all reasonable terms for a treaty. Prep- 
arations for war were made by the United States. \Vhen Napoleon gained 




THOMAS JEFFERSON. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 24I 

control a treaty was made. Washington died December 14, 1799. The Alien 
and Sedition Laws, granting arbitrary powers to the president and to the 
courts, were passed by the Federalist party, then in power. Indignation 
against these laws led to the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, which 
declared the laws unconstitutional and beyond the rightful power of Con- 
gress to enact. The election of a president was thrown into the House ; 
Jefferson was elected. 

370. Thought Questions. — Why was not the new capital placed farther 
west ? What provision in the first amendment of the Constitution was 
violated by the Sedition Law? Which amendment was violated by the 
Alien Law .-* In the Kentucky Resolutions, what was meant by the " mode 
and measure of redress " for violations of the Constitution ? The Repub- 
lican electors of iSoo wanted Burr for vice-president ; how did it happen 
that their votes made a tie between him and Jefferson for president I What 
do you consider the most important event of this administration? Why? 



Jefferson's Administration. 

Two Terms : 1S01-1S09. 

371. Services and Character of the New President. — 

Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, had been a prominent member 
of the Continental Congress. He was the author of the Declara- 
tion of Independence. He was the founder of the University 
of Virginia. He was governor of Virginia during part of the 
Revolutionary War. He was one of the commissioners sent to 
Europe, after our independence was declared, to treat with 
European powers. He succeeded Franklin as our minister to 
France. He was secretary of state in Washington's cabinet. 
He was vice-president under Adams. 

372. Republican Simplicity. — Jefferson was the first presi- 
dent elected by the Republican or Democratic party. He was 
inaugurated in the new capital at Washington. Previous in- 
augurations had been conducted with a great deal of ceremony. 
But Jefferson, one of the most dignified of men, disapproved of 
all forms and ceremonies. Former presidents had held recep- 



242 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

tions conducted with great formality ; but Jefferson was readily 
accessible to the humblest citizen. He received foreign minis- 
ters in a simple, matter-of-fact way that was very wounding to 
their vanity. He had declared that all men are created equal ; 
he looked upon a public officer as a public servant, and conse- 
quently he could see no reason why office-holding should be 
marked with pomp and haughty behavior. 

373. Trouble with the Pirates of the Mediterranean. — 

Along the north coast of Africa bands of Mahometan pirates 
had intrenched themselves. They sailed forth from their ports 
and harbors and captured the rich merchant-vessels from other 
countries. European nations had ceased resisting them by 
force of arms, and had adopted the method of paying yearly 
tribute as a means of buying protection for their trading-ves- 
sels. American commerce and American citizens had suffered 
very much from them. Some of our vessels had been captured 
and confiscated and the seamen sold into slavery. The United 
States had paid tribute for some years for protection and had 
used large sums of money in paying the ransom of captives. 
Finally, the demands of the pirates grew to such unreasonable 
amounts that our government refused to pay them. Then the 
Pasha of Tripoli declared war against the United States. In 
1803, a number of our war-vessels were sent to the Mediterra- 
nean to bring the pirates to terms. Our seamen showed great 
skill and courage and made our prowess respected by Euro- 
pean nations. Lieutenant Decatur, particularly, distinguished 
himself. The frigate Philadelphia chased one of the pirate 
vessels out of the open sea to the protection of the batteries of 
Tripoli. But in the pursuit, the Philadelphia ran on a reef and 
fell an easy prey to the pirates. The officers of the frigate 
were held in captivity. The Mahometans then manned the 
vessel with their own people and added it to their fleet. Some 
months later, in a small vessel, with only seventy-four men. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 243 

Decatur surprised the Philadelphia at night and killed or drove 
away all of the pirate crew. Then the vessel was set on 
fire. As Decatur sailed away in the light of the flames, he was 
fired upon by all the available guns of the fort ; but not a man 
was killed. Later, the whole American fleet appeared before 
Tripoli and besieged it. A land force of the Pasha's enemies 
had also been enlisted in the service of America. Tripoli could 
not hope to withstand the double attack and the Pasha sued for 
peace. A treaty was made in 1805 that gave us immunity from 
these annoying and destructive depredations. So that a new 
nation, from another continent, had done more to subdue the 
pirates than the old European nations had done with the buc- 
caneers at their own doors. 

374. Ohio Admitted. — In 1802, some territory west of 
Pennsylvania was admitted into the Union as the State of 
Ohio. It was the first state cut out of the great Northwest 
Territory (§ 330). 

375. The Louisiana Purchase. — When Jefferson became 
president the Mississippi was the extreme limit of our country 
on the west. Spain owned the great territory of Louisiana, 
lying west of the Mississippi. This territory included New 
Orleans and the mouth of the Mississippi ; and in those days, 
when wars were so frequent and railroads unheard of, the con- 
trol of a great river on the border of a country was vital to its 
interests. We have seen (§ 333) how the proposed surrender 
of the navigation of the Mississippi aroused the people of the 
West. In 1800, the territory of Louisiana was ceded back to 
France. President Jefferson thought it would be bad policy 
to allow our country to be hemmed in by a powerful European 
nation. In 1803, an attempt was made to purchase a part of 
the territory, including New Orleans and the mouth of the 
Mississippi. Napoleon, who was involved in a war with Eng- 
land, stood in much greater need of money than he did of 



244 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Louisiana ; and he offered to sell the whole territory. The 
United States was glad enough to buy. The price paid was 
fifteen million dollars. For this sum, the United States bouo^ht 
a great territory that extended from the Gulf to the source of 
the Mississippi and from the Mississippi to the Rocky Moun- 
tains. The territory gained contained nearly a million square 
miles, and was larger than the United States itself. By this 
purchase, it became possible for the United States to develop 
into one of the great nations of the earth. 

376. The Lewis and Clark Expedition. — Some of this 
vast territory is very little known in our own day; ninety years 
ago only its eastern border had been explored. But the presi- 
dent resolved to gain all the information that he could about 
the region. He arranged to send an exploring expedition 
out into the wild country. The expedition consisted of thirty 
men commanded by Captains Lewis and Clark. They left 
St. Louis in May, 1804, and ascended the Missouri River in 
boats. They were the first white men to see the great falls 
near the source. They crossed through a pass in the moun- 
tains and descended the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. 
They returned to civilization after an absence of nearly three 
years, having lost but one man.^ Because of this exploration 
the United States claimed the Oregon territory. 

377. Trouble with England: The Embargo. — The war 
which was going on between England and France involved 
most of the European countries and caused the United States 
considerable loss and annoyance. Each nation had prohibited 
all trade with the other, and claimed the right to confiscate all 
vessels engaged in such trade. Of course, this made American 
vessels liable to seizure at any time by one or the other of the 
enemies. Besides this, England claimed the right to search all 

1 The history of this expedition, printed by Harper & Brothers, is a ver\- inter- 
esting, true story of exploration and adventure. 









£ ? 




J, ;! l_^b ^i^^^^ ^i-l ; 













\>> 



.\^ 




PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 245 

American vessels and take from them any English seamen that 
might be found among their crews. Officers were, of course, 
not very careful to distinguish between English-born and 
American-born seamen. Several hundred men were seized 
within a year. The frigate Chesapeake refused to be searched 
by the officers of an English man-of-war. It was fired upon, 
searched, and some of its crew taken away. Retaliation could 
no longer be deferred. Congress decreed that no American 
vessels should carry goods to foreign countries. It was hoped 
that this embargo would materially injure both England and 
France ; but it hurt the United States more than it did either 
of them. As New England was more heavily engaged in 
foreign commerce than any other section of the country, it suf- 
ferred the most. New York City was the chief port of entry of 
the country ; this embargo brought its commerce to a stop and 
ruin stared it in the face. After a little more than a year's 
trial the act was repealed and a new act called the non-inter- 
course act, allowing commerce with all nations except England 
and France, was passed. 

378. Aaron Burr's Treason.— Aaron Burr, a brilUant but 
unprincipled man, had been vice-president during Jefferson's 
first term. He and Hamilton became bitter political rivals. 
The feeling on Burr's side grew to such intensity that he chal- 
lenged Hamilton to a duel: in the encounter he shot Hamil- 
ton*^ who did not attempt to harm Burr. Afterward he was sus- 
pected of forming a conspiracy to detach some of the south- 
western states and form a new nation, of which he should be 
the chief officer. He was arrested and tried for treason. 
Though the charge could not be proven in the courts, the pub- 
lic believed it true and he lost the respect of every one. 

379. Importation of Slaves. — In 1807, Congress forbade 
the importation of slaves after the beginning of 1808. Slaves 
were still bought and sold in our own territory ; but negroes cap- 



246 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



tured in Africa could no longer legally be brought to the 
United States and sold into slavery. Jefferson and the leaders 
of both parties looked forward to the gradual emancipation of 
slaves already on our soil. 



380. The First Steamboat. — After the steam engine was 
invented in England, attempts were made in all civilized coun- 
tries to apply steam-power to boats. The first successful 
steamboat was the creation of an American, Robert Fulton. 

His boat, called the " Clermont," 
was a rude affair, with uncovered 
wheels on the sides, showing no 
architectural beauty, and carrying 
sails to aid the new power. The 
people had no faith in its success 
while it was being built and 
derisively named it Fulton's Folly. 
Fulton announced that on a certain 
day he would start from New York 
for Albany, and great crowds gath- 
ered at the wharves to see what 
would happen. At the appointed 
time, the boat steamed off up the 
river and made the journey to Albany in thirty-two hours. 
Steamboats multiplied rapidly from this time, and by their means 
our commerce was developed with enormous rapidity. There 
were no railroads in the country at the time ; our carrying agents 
were wagon trains, flat boats (rude rafts) pulled or rowed up 
and down the rivers, and sail-boats on the lakes and coasts. 
Steamboats were put on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and 
were instrumental in hastening greatly the development of the 
western country. With the growth of railroads later, steamboats 
became less and less useful in domestic commerce, and are 
gradually disappearing from our rivers. 




The " Clermont. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 247 

381. Summary. — Jefferson adopted simple manners and customs in 
his bearing as president. The pirates of the Mediterranean were defeated 
by our ships and our commerce was freed from their robberies. The State 
of Ohio was admitted into the Union. Louisiana, a territory lying west of 
the Mississippi and extending to the Rocky Mountains, was purchased from 
France at a cost of $15,000,000. Lewis and Clark led a party out into 
this wilderness and penetrated through to the western coast. They pre- 
pared a description of the country they had explored. Trouble with Eng- 
land caused an embargo to be laid upon our commerce. This proved to be 
a very unpopular measure, and after a little more than a year it was re- 
pealed. Aaron Burr shot Alexander Hamilton in a duel. Further impor- 
tation of slaves was prohibited. Robert Fulton invented the first steam- 
boat. The administration is chiefly noted for the growing prosperity of 
the country and the great extension of its limits. 

382. Thought Questions. — By what nation was Louisiana first claimed ? 
When did it pass into the hands of Spain .'' Why was this transfer made ? 
When and to whom was the second transfer made ? The third .-* Give 
two reasons why the United States was anxious to get Louisiana. If 
Louisiana had fallen into the hands of England, would the United States 
have been able to acquire it ? Why was the Embargo Act so unpopular .-' 
What does the Constitution say about the importation of slaves ? What 
io you consider the most important event of this administration ? Why.? 



Madison's Administration. 

Two Terms: 1809-1817. 

383. Services and Character of the New President. — 

Three members of the Republican party, James Madison and 
James Monroe, both of Virginia, and De Witt Clinton, of New 
York, were conspicuous candidates for the presidency; but 
Jefferson preferred Madison, as his views were known to 
harmonize with those of the retiring president; and he was 
the one elected. The new president was one of the most 
distinguished statesmen of the day. He had served his state 
in the state Legislature, the Continental Congress, the constitu- 
tional convention, and the national Congress. He was secre- 



248 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



tary of state during Jefferson's two terms as president. He 
was the author of many of the Federalist'^ papers, of the 
Virginia Bill of Rights, and of the Virginia Resolutions 
(§ 366), — all enlightened and significant writings, important in 
their times, and destined to influence the future course of the 




James Madison. 



republic. He received nearly three-fourths of the electoral 
votes, but forty votes fewer than Jefferson had received for 
his second term. 



384. The Condition that Confronted the Administration. — 

Jefferson had been unable to settle the disputes with England 
and France ; and Madison fell heir to them, and was expected to 
pursue the same policy in regard to them. The method of this 
policy was to avoid war, and to seek to gain what we wanted by 

1 See footnote, p. 228. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 249 

diplomacy and commercial retaliations. England had forbid- 
den our ships to trade with France and her allies, and France 
had laid the same prohibition on our commerce in regard to 
England and her allies; our Congress had sought to retaliate, 
first, by prohibiting all foreign commerce, and afterward by lim- 
iting the prohibition to England and France.^ The people of 
the northeastern states were largely engaged in commerce, and 
they suffered heavily under this condition of things ; it became 
a vital national matter to afford relief. 

385. The Process of Relief. — Madison, shortly after his inau- 
guration, entered into an agreement with the British minister by 
the terms of which commercial relations with England were to 
be resumed. Immediately upon the announcement of this 
agreement more than a thousand of our vessels, heavily laden 
with precious cargoes, sailed from our ports for foreign shores. 
But England promptly repudiated her minister's agreement, and 
reasserted the former provisions and restrictions; and only the 
vessels that had been fortunate enough to get away upon the 
first announcement of the agreement were allowed to sail un- 
molested. Then negotiations were opened with France, and 
terms were offered us that seemed to make some concessions, 
and we accepted. But the result was even worse than in the 
English agreement, for we gained no real commercial conces- 
sions, and we further offended and alienated England. Eng- 
land seemed to play with us, and France duped us, and the 
result of the negotiations was nothing but humiliation and ex- 
asperation. A feeling was growing that our interests and our 
honor demanded stronger measures. 

386. The Tippecanoe Incident. — In i8 1 1, through the imme- 
diate influence of the great chief, Tecumseh, the Indian tribes of 

^ England and France were at war ; the United States had declared herself neu- 
tral ; neither country was willing that we should sell any kind of supplies to the 
other. 



250 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 




the Northwest united in a great uprising. Their purpose was to 
drive the white settlers from the country. 
General Harrison was sent against the 
Indians. He was surprised at night in 
his camp at Tippecanoe, in the Territory 
of Indiana ; but his men rallied quickly 
and defeated the Indians with great 
slaughter. It was believed that English 
agents had encouraged the Indians with 
arms and advice, and the feeling against 

England in the West was intense. 

387. The Wrongs to our Seamen. — England continued to 
seize seamen from our ships and force them into her own service. 
During the seven years preceding this time more than four 
thousand American seamen had been taken from American 
ships and pressed into British service. She also continued to 
seize our merchant vessels as prizes, and finally became so 
insolent as to enter our own waters and capture some of our 
ships. 

388. The Declaration of War. — The time was ripe for war. 
Years of negotiations and retaliatory legislation had gained us 
nothing. Those of our merchant vessels that ventured beyond 
our ports were captured and confiscated, and our seamen were 
taken from our ships and forced to serve England in her war 
against France. The Tippecanoe incident, and the discovery 
of the Henry letters,^ purporting to reveal a plot of the governor 
of Canada secretly to influence New England to secede from 

1 Henry represented himself to have lived a few years in New England as the 
secret agent of Canada and England, acting under instructions to note the signs and 
expressions of discontent with the administration of affairs in the United States, and 
of New England's leaning toward the mother-country ; and further, to use his influence 
in increasing the discontent and strengthening the regard for England. He claimed 
to be able to prove these things by authentic official letters in his possession. The 
president paid him $50,000 for the letters. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 



251 



the Union and annex itself to Canada, caused great excitement. 
Those who had been opposed to war — including the presi- 
dent — were obliged, finally, to abandon their position and join 
the war party. In a speech before Congress, Henry Clay asked, 
"What are we not to lose by peace.'' Commerce, character, a 
nation's best treasure, honor." War was declared in June, 18 12. 



SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 
Events of 1812. 

389. The First Movement against Canada. — General Hull, 
governor of Michigan Territory, an old officer of Revolutionary 
fame, was instructed to invade Canada. But the general was 
inefficient and cowardly. He was besieged in Detroit by a force 

of British and Indians, and 
without firing a gun sur- 
rendered Detroit and Mich- 
igan (August 16), thereby 
covering his name with 
shame ^ and greatly discour- 
aging the American army. 

390. The First Sea 
Fight. — At this time the 
American people believed 
that they could march into 
Canada and easily conquer 
it, but so far as sea fighting 
was concerned they had little 
hope of accomplishing more 
England was, at this time, 
the greatest maritime power in the world. She had nearly a 

1 General Hull was afterwards tried by a court of army officers on the charge of 
treason, cowardice, and conduct unbecoming an officer, convicted on the two latter 
charges, and sentenced to be shot. President Madison pardoned him in considera 
tion of his services in the Revolution. 




than a weak defense of our coast. 



252 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

thousand ships manned with veteran crews, while the United 
States had but twelve men-of-war, and some of them had been 
hastily and imperfectly manned.^ But in the first decisive 
engagement we gained such a signal victory that we took heart 
and prepared for greater enterprises. One of our warships, 
the Constitution^ commanded by Captain Isaac Hull,^ while 
cruising in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, fell in with the English 
warship Giierriere. The Giierrih-e, after an engagement last- 
ing about an hour, surrendered. The prisoners were taken to 
Boston, and Captain Hull and his officers were feasted at 
Faneuil Hall. The Constitution, after this victory, was named 
Old Irofisides, and became a famous ship.^ 

391. Continuation of the Contest on the Sea Our next 

important victory was gained by the sloop-of-war Wasp. This 
vessel, cruising off the coast of North Carolina, fell in with 
a fleet of English merchantmen under the convoy of the brig 
Frolic. The Frolic was much better armed and equipped 
than the Wasp, but after a desperate encounter the Americans 
boarded the English ship, and themselves hauled down the 
English colors. The firing had hardly ceased when a pow- 
erful English man-of-war appeared in sight, and it at once 
took possession of the Wasp and its prizes. But the moral 
effect of the Wasp's victory against such odds remained to 
encourage our seamen. And, indeed, the effect was soon to 
be seen. Our captains attacked English vessels against great 
odds ; and fights occurred between English and American 
vessels all along our coast, and even in the waters of the 
Gulf and on the South American coast. The Americans were 

1 " The American navy consisted of twelve vessels, the largest of which were the 
three 44-gun frigates United States, Constitution, and President. The British navy 
v/as composed of 830 vessels, of which 230 were larger than any of the American 
ships." Prof. A. B. Hart, "Formation of the Union." 

2 Captain Hull was a nephew of the General Hull who had failed so signally at 
Detroit, and was a brave and efficient officer. 

3 See Oliver Wendell Holmes's poem, " Old Ironsides." 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 



253 



almost uniformly successful. During the year almost three hun- 
dred prizes, carrying valuable cargoes and manned by more than 
three thousand men, were captured by American cruisers. All 
Europe was greatly astonished at our success in fighting the 
" Mistress of the Seas," and England herself was astounded. 

392. The Invasion of Canada. — While our ships were so 
fortunately engaged upon the ocean, another invasion of Canada 

was attempted. 
General Van 
Rensselaer led 
a body of troops 
to the Niagara 
frontier of New 
York and pre- 
pared to cross 
over into Can- 
ada. Colonel 
Van Rensselaer 
with a thousand 

men did cross over, and in a sharp engagement dislodged the 
English from Queenstown Heights, and took possession of the 
batteries.^ The English, however, sent for reenforcements, and 
as the American militiamen who remained on the New York 
side would not go over to succor their gallant comrades,^ after 
severe losses, Colonel Van Rensselaer was obliged to surren- 
der. General Van Rensselaer, disgusted with troops so inde- 
pendent and undisciplined, resigned command, and was replaced 
with General Smyth, of Virginia. General Smyth issued some 
fiery proclamations, and made a show of a dashing campaign ; 

1 Colonel Van Rensselaer was wounded as his forces were trying to effect a land- 
ing on the Canadian side, and the Americans were led by subordinate officers. Gen- 
eral Brock, to whom General Hull had surrendered at Detroit, was still in command 
of the English troops in the attempt to retake Queenstown. 

'■^ These militiamen insisted that they had joined the army to protect the American 
border, but not to invade foreign territory. 




254 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



but in the end he proved absolutely ineffective, and was re- 
moved after the fall had passed away and nothing had been 
accomplished. The invasion of Canada was, so far, a dismal 
failure. 

393. Madison's Reelection. — The Federal party generally, 
and the members of it in New England in particular, were 
strongly opposed to the continuance of the war ; but the Re- 
publican party was committed to it, and was enthusiastic in 
prosecuting it. In the fall of this year Madison was renomi- 
nated by the Republicans, and was reelected, receiving 128 of 
the 217 electoral votes. 



1813. 

394. Off the Atlantic Coast. — Captain Lawrence of the 
Hornet, as a reward for his victory over the British brig Pea- 
cock,^ was placed in command of 
the Chesapeake, one of our best 
frigates. The ship was laid up 
in Boston harbor to be repaired 
and refitted. The crew had not 
yet been trained and disciplined 
for their duties, several of the 
sailors were sick, and there was 
much dissatisfaction because of 
delayed pay. But Lawrence had 
been made over-confident by pre- 
vious success, and in this poor 
condition he sailed out of the 
harbor and attacked the British 
frigate Shannoti. A dreadful combat ensued, in which both 

1 The sloop-of-war Hornet, commanded by Captain Lawrence, and the British brig 
Peacock had a terrific battle of a few minutes. The Peacock was disabled and struck 
her colors. The brig was damaged more than was thought and sank suddenly, en- 
gulfing nine British seamen and three Americans. 




James Lawrence. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 25$ 

ships suffered severely, and in which Lawrence was mortally 
wounded. As the brave captain was carried below decks, 
with almost his last breath he cried to his men, " Don't give 
up the ship." Victory rested with the English, however, and 
the Shanno?i, greatly damaged, towed the shattered Chesapeake 
to Halifax, where Lawrence was buried with military honors,-^ 

395. Plans for the Invasion of Canada. — The land forces 
were this year organized in three divisions : The Army of the 
North, under General Hampton, was to march by way of Lake 
Champlain; the Army of the Center, under the command of 
Major-General Dearborn, was to take the old Niagara course ; 
the Army of the West, under General Harrison, was to recover 
Michigan for us and again invade Canada by the way of De- 
troit. All these armies were to be aided by a greatly strength- 
ened navy of the Lakes. Let us examine the western movement 
first. 

396. The Raisin River Massacre. — An advance force of 
General Harrison's army drove a body of English and Indians 
out of Frenchtown, on the Raisin River, and captured the 
town. (See map, p. 253.) Shortly afterward a large force 
of English and Indians, under Colonel Proctor, returned to 
Frenchtown and attacked the Americans. Under a pledge of 
protection, our forces surrendered. Colonel Proctor immedi- 
ately returned to Alalden, and left the prisoners at the mercy 
of the savages. A large proportion of the captives were killed 
by tomahawk, knife, or fire, while some of them were dragged 
to Detroit and sold to Americans for heavy ransoms. 

397. Fort Meigs. — General Harrison, checked by the 
Raisin River misfortune, built Fort Meigs (Fort Defiance on 
map) on the Maumee and retired to it. Here he was besieged 
by a large force of British and Indians, under General Proctor 

1 His remains now rest in Trinity churchyard, New York City. 



256 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



and Tecumseh. During the siege a detachment of a reUef 
party of Kentuckians was cut off from the main body and 
cruelly massacred after the manner of the Frenchtown out- 
rage. But the attacking party was obliged to abandon the 
si'^ge. It retired to Maiden. In the latter part of July Proc- 
tor and Tecumseh, with a force twice as large as before, re- 
turned to the siege. Failing to take the fort and also to entice 
the Americans into the open, General Proctor took part of his 
force and marched away to attack Fort Stephenson (Sandusky 
on map). This fort was defended by one hundred and sixty 
men, under Captain Crogan, a young man just twenty-one. Upon 
the demand to surrender, the gallant captain answered that he 
would defend the fort so long as there was a man alive within 
its walls. Cannonading producing no important effect, the Eng- 
lish made an assault to carry the fort by storm. The only gun 
the fort contained had been masked in position to control the 
trench that surrounded the walls; the attacking party, when it 
came within range, was almost entirely swept away by a charge 
from this single gun. After this deadly repulse, General Proc- 
tor, fearing that he would be attacked by a relief party under 
General Harrison, ai^ain retired to Maiden. 



398. The Victory on Lake Erie. — In September of this 
year. Captain Perry with a tieet of nine vessels, hve of which 

he had just built on the shore of 
Lake Erie, sailed out into the lake 
and engaged an English tieet. Perry's 
own ship, the LdicrcNCc, bearing the 
tiag, '• Don't give up the ship," was 
so cut to pieces that it had to be 
abandoned. Perry had to pass by 
some of the enemy's ships in reach- 
ing the ^'iiigiira of his own tieet. 
He carried his tiag in one hand, 




PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 



257 



and in an open boat made a near and conspicuous target for 
the fire of the enemy. But he made the passage safely. In 
a few minutes after Perry 
reached the Niagara the 
fight was over, and the brave 
young captain returned to 
the shattered Lawrence to 
receive the surrender of the 
English fleet. Perry's des- 
patch, describing the con- 
test, was as brief and abso- 
lute in its way as the combat 
had been in another way : 
— •' ^^'e have met the enemy 
and they are ours — two 
ships, two brigs, one schoon- 
er, and one sloop." ^ The victory gave us control of Lake Erie. 




Oliver Hazard Perry. 



399. The Thames Victory. — General Harrison was quick 
to seize the advantage of Perry's victory; he immediately 
crossed the lake to attack the English and Indians at Maiden. 
He found Maiden deserted, however, Proctor and Tecumseh 
having retreated with their forces. The Americans entered on 
a hot pursuit, and overtook the enemy at the Thames river. 
In the battle that ensued the British were defeated and obliged 
to surrender. Colonel Proctor escaped by flight. Tecumseh 
was shot during the battle, and the Indians fled in confusion. 
The western movement resulted in clearing Lake Erie, recov- 
ering Michigan, and administering a severe defeat to the enemy 
on his own soil. Captain Perry and General Harrison became 
the heroes of the nation. 



1 The British had fewer vessels, but better ones, and more men, and more but 
smaller guns. The English captain was one of Nelson's veterans, while Perry had 
never seen a naval engagement in his life. 



258 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

400. The Movement in the East. — The armies of the Cen- 
ter and of the North gained us no important victories. The 
Army of the Center embarked from Sackett's Harbor and 
crossed the lake for the purpose of capturing Toronto. In 
this movement they were successful, capturing the town, tak- 
ing many prisoners and securing much valuable property. The 
army then returned to Sackett's Harbor to find that it had 
been attacked in their absence, but successfully defended by 
the garrison left there. Late in the next month ^^^lay) the 
army again crossed to the Canadian side and took some minor 
posts. But this time they were attacked by a large English 
force, and had enough to do to defend tliemselves. A plan 
was now formed to unite the armies of the Center and of the 
Xorth and attack Montreal. The Army of the Center sailed 
down the St. Lawrence to make the junction.^ The troops were 
disembarked at St. Regis, where it was expected the Army of 
the Xorth would soon join them. But the Army of tlie Xorth 
had not moved, and the plan to invade Canada by this route 
had to be abandoned for the season. 

401. On the Sea. — The contest was waged upon the sea 
more fiercely, perhaps, than upon land. But on the American 
side there was small equipment and little organization, our suc- 
cesses coming from the courage and enterprise of our seamen. 
Many English merchantmen were captured. But the English 
were quick to retaliate, and often went beyond just bounds in 
trying to punish us. They captured some of our men-of-war. 
Several defenseless villages along Chesapeake Bay were wan- 
tonly bombarded and destroyed. The Carolina and Virginia 
coasts were ravaged after the manner in which freebooters 
would conduct a campaign. 

1 In order to drive away the British and Indians, who were g^athering in bands 
along the river bank to obstruct the progress of the fleet, a force was landed, and an 
engagement resulted. There were hea\->- losses on both sides — about three hundred 
on the American side — and nothing decisive gained. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 259 

402. The Creek Uprising. — The Creek Indians, a power- 
ful tribe in Alabama, incited to violence by Tecumseh and his 
brother, the Prophet, fell upon the garrison at Fort Mimms and 
massacred more than four hundred people, sparing neitlier men, 
women, nor children. Immediate preparations were made by 
tlie southwestern states to march against the Indians. Gen- 
eral Jackson, with a force of Tennesseeans, was the first in the 
field. He drove the Indians before him, defeated tliem in sev- 
eral hard-fought battles, and burned one of their villages. 
Finally the Indian forces concentrated for a great battle, and 
tlie engagement took place at Horseshoe Bend,^ on a branch of 
the Alabama River January 27, 1814). The Indians suffered a 
bloody defeat, and surrendered to Jackson on his own terms. 

IS 14. 

403. The Last Invasion of Canada. — July 3, Generals 
Scott and Ripley, leading the Army of the Center, crossed the 
Niagara river into Canada. They met the English force near 
Chippewa, and a hotly contested battle ensued. The English 
were defeated, and retreated down the river to Queenstown. 
In sight of Niagara Falls, General Scott, with a division of the 
army, met the English forces again. General Scott, though 
greatly outnumbered, heroically held his position until reen- 
forced by the other divisions. The fighting was desperate and 
very destructive to both sides. The Americans distinguished 
themselves by daring generalship and dogged endurance. The 
English were at last driven from the field with a loss of nearly 
a thousand men: the American losses were nearly as great. 
The Americans had much the smaller force. 

404.' The Siege of Fort Erie. — The Americans fell back to 
Fort Erie. Soon the English, reenforced. moved forward and 
invested the fort. About the middle of September, after hav- 

1 Saru Houston, aftenN-ard prominent in Texas history, was wounded in this battle. 



26o 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



K I o 




SCALE OF MILES 



ing besieged the fort for more than a month, the English, hear- 
ing that a division of the Army of the North was on the way to 

the reUef of the fort, raised the 
siege and retired to Fort George. 
Early in November the Americans 
burned Fort Erie, and recrossed 
the Niagara and went into winter 
quarters. 

405. The Battle of Lake 

Champlain. — When the division 

of the Army of the North was 

taken to the relief of Fort Erie 

about fifteen hundred troops were 

left to hold Plattsburgh, on Lake 

Champlain. Hearino^ of the re- 
10 20 so ^ ° 

duced force at Plattsburgh, the 
English decided to seize the opportunity to get control of 
Lake Champlain. General Prevost, wuth fourteen thousand 
men, marched into New York to attack Plattsburgh, while an 
English fleet was to attack Commodore McDonough's squadron 
on the lake.^ Fighting began on the lake first, and the Ameri- 
cans achieved a signal victory ; several of the English ships 
surrendered, but some of the smaller ones fled, and escaped 
pursuit because our own ships were too badly damaged to 
chase them. In the meantime, the small land force had held 
the fourteen thousand English veterans in check, and when the 
news of the American victory on the lake reached the English 
general he retreated under the enthusiastic charge of the re- 
joicing militia, leaving his sick and wounded and his military 
stores, and made haste to oret back into Canada. 



1 The English squadron had more men and more guns. One of McDonough's 
vessels had just been built, within twenty days, on the bank of the lake. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 



261 



406. Along the Coast. — The blockade which had been put 
upon the southern coast the previous year was now extended 
to the northern coast. Several small towns near the seaboard 
had been captured and destroyed. In August a British fleet ^ 
of twenty-one vessels reached our country and landed on the 
Maryland shore an army of five 
thousand men, whose purpose was 
to capture Washington. A force of 
militia and marines was put forward 
to intercept them, but it was defeated. 
The English suddenly appeared at 
the capitol, captured the president's 
dinner, which he had just left, and 
came near capturing the president 
himself. The capitol buildings and 
some private residences were burned. 
General Ross, who commanded the 
land force, then marched his army 




against Baltimore, and instructed 

the fleet to bombard Fort Henry, Baltimore's protection 
from attacks by sea. The land force was checked in its 
march by a determined body of militia, and in a preliminary 
skirmish General Ross himself was killed. The British men- 
of-war bombarded Fort Henry all day and part of the night 
without doing serious damage.^ The troops then reembarked, 
the siege was raised, and the squadron sailed away. 



1 Admiral Cockburn, who commanded this fleet, was a vandal and a barbarian. 
He stood in the speaker's chair in the capitol, waved his hat and gave the command 
to burn the building, which contained the precious records of the new nation. He 
burned defenseless villages, and even country houses occupied only by women. See 
Coffin's " Building of the Nation." 

2 Francis S. Key, detained on board an EngUsh man-of-war, watching by the 
flashes of the guns the flag that waved on Fort Henrv, composed the " Star-Spangled 
Banner." 



262 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

407. The Hartford Convention. — New England had bit- 
terly opposed the methods pursued during the progress of the 
war, and now that the blockade had extended to its own ports, 
that the capitol had been burned and nothing was secure, it 
felt willing to resort to strong measures. At the suggestion of 
the Massachusetts Legislature a convention was called, and 
delegates from all the New England states met at Hartford 
December 15. The discussions of this convention have for- 
ever been secret, and the official record of its proceedings was 
not made public by the convention itself. The Republican 
party openly charged the convention with treasonable purposes, 
with the intention of advising the states represented to secede 
from the Union and make peace with England, or proffer al- 
legiance to the enemy. If these charges were without founda- 
tion they might easily have been disproven, but no effort was 
made to refute them. The convention was so condemned by 
the people generally that it ruined the Federalist party. ^ 

408. Peace. — Both sides were tired of the conflict, and 
neither side had gained anything decisive. The treaty signed 
at Ghent, December 24, was as negative in its nature as the war 
had been. Nothing for which the war had been fought was 
mentioned in the treaty ; the two nations, tired of war, did lit- 
tle more than agree to peace. However, the moral and sub- 
stantial victories were with us in reality, although they were not 
formally mentioned in the terms of the treaty. Since that day 
England has never confiscated our ships, nor impressed our 
seamen, nor blockaded our ports. We demonstrated to the 
world that American seamen were equal in every way to 
English seamen, and were better gunners. And we proved to 
all interested parties that any attempt to establish a foreign 
power on our territory would meet with disastrous failure. 

1 A representative was sent from the convention to confer with the president, but 
peace was declared before the conference could take place. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 263 

409. Battle of New Orleans. — Although the treaty of 
peace had been signed on December 24, on January 8 one of 
the bloodiest battles of the war was fought at New Orleans. 
We had no telegraph then, and the news of the treaty did not 
reach us till after the battle. The British made great prepara- 
tions for the conquest of Louisiana. A fleet of fifty vessels, 
carrying twelve thousand men, under command of General 
Pakenham, sailed to attack New Orleans. General Jackson, 
who, after his victory over the Creeks, had been placed in com- 
mand of the Army of the South, hastened to defend the city. 
Jackson had but six thousand men, but they were well pro- 
tected behind breastworks. The English made one assault 
after another on these extemporized defenses, but they were 
repulsed with heavy losses every time. Their general and 
many of their chief officers were killed. Their losses amounted 
to twenty-six hundred men. The Americans had but eight 
men killed and thirteen wounded. 

410. Admission of States, — The Territory of Orleans, 
which was the southern part of the Louisiana purchase, was 
admitted to the Union in 18 12 under the name of Louisiana, 
making the eighteenth state. The northern part of the terri- 
tory was thereafter called Missouri. Indiana, the second state 
from the Northwest Territory, was admitted in 18 16. 

411. Summary. — The new president and his advisers were unable 
to make satisfactory terms with England. England prohibited trade with 
France, and France prohibited trade with England. The English searched 
our vessels, captured our seamen and forced them into the British service. 
The belief that the English had instigated the Indian uprising in the North- 
west, and the revelations of the Henry letters, hastened the declaration of 
war (June, 1812). The contest is known as the War of 1812, but it lasted 
more than two years. The terms of the treaty of peace (signed at Ghent 
December 24, 18 14) did not settle the matters in dispute. But we have 
never since had the same causes for trouble, and the English have never 
since that time presumed to confiscate our merchantmen, nor to capture 
and impress our seamen. Our standing among nations of the world was 



264 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

greatly improved by our success in resisting the British on the sea ; in 
every important engagement, except one, where the forces were at all 
evenly matched, the British ships had to strike their colors. We showed, 
too, by this war, that we were able to defend ourselves against foreign inva- 
sion, and that, therefore, the United States was secure to work out its own 
history. Louisiana was admitted in 181 2 ; Indiana in 18 16. 

412. Thought Questions. — Let the student summarize the events of 
the war under the following heads : 

1. War on the northern frontier. 

2. War on the Atlantic coast. 

3. Naval battles. 

4. Events in the South. 

In what quarter (as above indicated) were the American arms most suc- 
cessful? When did the greatest number of American failures occur,'' 
Can you explain why } 

Monroe's Administration. 

Two Terms: 1817-1825. 

413. Services and Character of the New President. — James 
Monroe, of Virginia, was a student in William and Mary Col- 
lege when the United States declared their independence of 
Great Britain. He joined the American forces and served 
throughout the war, distinguishing himself as a soldier and an 
officer. He was minister to France under President Washing- 
ton. President Jefferson sent him to France for the purchase 
of Louisiana, and afterwards appointed him minister to Eng- 
land. He served in Madison's cabinet as secretary of state. 
The new president was a kind-hearted man, but firm and deter- 
mined in purpose. He was modest in regard to his own 
talents and services, and generous in admiration of the ability 
and usefulness of others. 

414. The President's Northern Tour. — Soon after his inau- 
guration, Monroe made a tour through the New England and 
other eastern states. During the war of 18 12, New England 
had become disaffected toward the government and the Union 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 



265 



(§ 407), and it was Monroe's purpose to express the presi- 
dent's undiminished regard for this section, and to incite the 
loyalty of the people. He was received everywhere most cor- 
dially. The people who had 
favored the war, those who 
had opposed it, and the 
radical Federalist leaders 
who had advocated such 
extreme measures against 
it, now that the war was 
ended* and its objects ac- 
complished, united in doing 
honor to the nation's presi- 
dent.^ The Federalist party 
went to pieces over its course 
in regard to this war, and 
our whole people seemed 
to be united in one party. 
Indeed, as years went on, 
the period of Monroe's administration began to be called the 
" Era of Good Feeling," so cordial and harmonious was the 
support given the president. Only one electoral vote was cast 
against him on his election to the second term. 




James Monroe. 



415. Extension of Territory : the Seminole War. — At this 
time Florida belonged to Spain (§ 323), and on its territory 
there were some Spanish forts garrisoned with Spanish soldiers. 
The population, however, was made up of Seminole Indians, 
runaway slaves, and a few English adventurers. The Sem- 
inoles formed the greater part of this mixed population. 
These people made frequent raids across the border into 

1 On formal occasions Monroe appeared clad in his Revolutionary uniform, and 
completely won the hearts of the scarred veterans of our early struggle for independ- 
ence. 



266 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Georgia, destroying propert}-, stealing slaves, and murdering 
settlers. When pursued into Florida, these marauding bands 
claimed the protection of neutral territon-, or fled to the secret 
recesses of the everglades beyond pursuit. These raids finallv 
became so frequent and so exasperating that General Jackson, 
the Xew Orleans hero, was sent to the front to teach the Sem- 
inoles and their allies a lesson. Jackson dealt with the matter 
after his usual summary manner. He drove the Indians out 
of Georgia, and followed them into Florida, where they scat- 
tered into the swamps to save themselves. He captured and 
destroyed the Seminoles' chief village, took forcible possession 
of two or three principal Spanish forts, and executed two 
British subjects who had aided the Indians. 

Jackson's course caused a heated controversy in Congress, 
where he was accused of exceeding his instructions and of 
violating the law of nations. The administration, though em- 
barrassed by his actions, defended his course, and Congress 
refused to censure him. Spain finally decided to sell us the 
territory of Florida. It was bought, in 1S19. for five million 
dollars. As one of the conditions of this purchase we agreed 
that the Sabine River should form our southwestern boundan,*. 
By this agreement we relinquished in Spain's favor all claims to 
Texas.^ 

The states of Mississippi and Alabama were formerly part 
of the territory claimed by Georgia. This territor}' was ceded 
to the United States in 1S02 (§ 33^)- Mississippi became 
a state in 1S17; Alabama, in 1S19. Illinois, the third state 
from the great Northwest Territory, was admitted in iSiS. 

416. Slavery. — In 1S19, the Union consisted of twenty- 
two states, half "free " and half "slave." with the Ohio Rivcr 
and the south line of Pennsylvania as the boundary between 
them. Circumstances had made it possible that a new South- 
ern territory could be put forward for admission directly after 
the admission of each new Northern state, so that the balance 

1 The United States had claimed Texas as part of the Louisiana purchase. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 26/ 

had been preserved. There had been much discussion of 
slavery privately, in the public prints and on public platforms. 
Northern sentiment was divided. There was a small faction 
that, on moral grounds, insisted on the abolition of slavery. 
A greater faction feared the growth and hnal preponderance 
of the slave-holding population. A third faction, from the 
nature of the terms of the original union of states and the 
reading of the Constitution, thought it illegal and dishonorable 
to restrict slavery beyond the original provisions and prohibi- 
tions of the Constitution, In the South, there were many 
people who were opposed to slavery on moral grounds (Jeffer- 
son, Clay, and other great leaders among them), and who 
hoped for the gradual extinction of slaver}-;^ but the major 
part of the population, through custom or self-interest,- had 
come to think the mild form of slavery that existed in the 
South best for both negroes and whites. And it was seen by 
sensible people everywhere that the immediate abolition of 
slavery meant ruin to the South ; it would rob both races of 
the means of living. 

417. The Missouri Compromise. — When a territorial gov- 
ernment was proposed for Missouri (1S19), the controversy 
broke out in intense form. The dividing line between the 
"free" and the "slave" states — the Ohio River — was lost on 
the west side of the Mississippi. Should Missouri be " free " 

1 Jeflferson's plan for the gradual extinction of slaN'ery was to declare all negroes 
bom after a certain date free, to keep these free-born negroes \s-ith their parents until 
able to maintain themselves, and then to ship them to some friendly asylum outside 
of the United States, bought and prepared for the purpose. With this plan, slavery 
would perish \\-ith the death of the negroes who were still in bondage on the date set. 

- In the beginning all sections without distinction bought and sold slaves, and no 
section thought it v\Tong (_§§ 91. 150. 2oq). The negroes were at first used chiefly as 
domestic ser\-ants ; but, with the development of cotton and rice-growing in the 
Southern states, they became almost indispensable in the fields of this section : so 
that their number grew ven>- fast at the South and ven.- slowly at the North. After 
a while there came a day when the liberation of slaves meant but slight loss to the 
North and ruin to the South. 



268 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

or " slave " ? It lay for the most part north of the Ohio line, 
but it had been settled chiefly by slaveholders, and its own 
voice was for slaveholding. In Congress the advocates of 
" free " territory at first gained the advantage ; but in the end 
Missouri was organized without any restrictions as to slavery. 
When the bill to admit Missouri as a state came up next year 
(1820), the contest was renewed. Maine ^ was asking for ad- 
mission as a free state at the same time. Those who favored 
the admission of Missouri as a slave state joined the two states 
in one bill, so that they should succeed or fail together. But 
there could be no quarrel over Maine, as it was wholly free, 
and the real battle was fought over Missouri, The Northern 
states insisted that Congress had the right to prohibit slavery 
in the states it admitted to the Union, and should exercise the 
right ; the Southern people urged that each state should deter- 
mine its own domestic concerns, and that Missouri should be 
allowed to say whether it should enter as a free or as a slave 
state. The debate that followed was a long and able one, and 
sometimes reached a very angry tone. Through the eloquence 
and influence of Henry Clay, a compromise was effected. By 
its terms Missouri entered as a slave state (182 1), but with 
the provision that any state afterward formed out of the 
Louisiana purchase lying north of 36° 30' — the southern 
boundary of Missouri — must enter as a free state; any state 
formed out of the purchase south of this line might decide for 
itself whether it would be free or slave. By a separate bill 
Maine was admitted as a free state the day after the Missouri 
Compromise bill was passed. 

418. Internal Improvements. — In this day, railroads were 
unknown, and overland commerce was carried on solely by 
wagons drawn by draught animals. With such slow means of 
transportation, distress might exist in one part of the country 

i Up to this time, Maine had been Massachusetts territory. 




HLIJKr' CLA/. 



I 



>l 



^ 



m 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 269 

while another section had more food products than could be 
used or sold. Anything that would lead to a quicker and more 
general distribution of supplies would, of course, greatly aid the 
development of the country. In 18 17, through the influence of 
Governor Clinton and by the authority of the state legislature, 
work was begun on the Erie Canal. It extended from the 
eastern end of Lake Erie to Albany on the Hudson, and when 
completed (1825) was 363 miles long. It afforded an extreme- 
ly cheap means of transportation, and assisted greatly in the 
development of the interior of New York, and even of Ohio 
and the western country. With its help. New York City 
jumped into the front rank of commercial cities, and has ever 
since been the great commercial center of the Union. 

419. The Cumberland Road. — This highway, begun in a 
small town in Maryland, supported at first by state funds, 
grew in importance until it became a subject of national dis- 
cussion and of national aid. It was fostered and encouraged 
by the powerful Clay and an enthusiastic party. It was finally 
extended, eighty feet wide, paved with hard stone, " a noble 
turnpike," to Wheeling. It proved highly useful in developing 
the West and in adding to the wealth of the East. Clay 
planned to extend it down the Ohio to the Mississippi. A 
southern road was projected from Washington to New Orleans. 

420. The Monroe Doctrine. — Several of the Spanish colo- 
nies in South America revolted, and set up governments of 
their own. The United States was the first nation to recog- 
nize their independence. Later, France gave notice that she 
would call a congress of the great powers to consider the 
revolt of these colonies. Of course, the plan would be to 
reduce these revolted colonies to European dependence by put- 
ting over them kings sent from the royal families of Europe. 
In opposition to this purpose. President Monroe sent to Con- 
gress (1823) a message that declared, "That we should con- 



270 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

sider any attempt on their part (the part of the European 
powers) to extend their system to any portion of this hemi- 
sphere as dangerous to our peace and safety," and further that, 
" The American continents, by the free and independent posi- 
tion which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth 
not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any 
European powers." "In these two propositions consists the 
celebrated ' Monroe Doctrine,' a doctrine, we may add, which 
our later statesmen have developed at their convenience, link- 
ing it inseparably with the name of the president who thus 
pronounced it, and seeing in it what many hundred millions of 
American freemen, in the long vista of coming centuries, will 
still better recognize, if free institutions are capable of growth 
and endurance, the sacred stone of chartered liberty in the 
Western world." ^ This message was carefully studied in all 
the capitals of Europe; the congress was never called; the 
plan of reducing the revolted colonies was abandoned. 

421. Lafayette^s Visit. — In 1824, Lafayette (§ 286), now 
nearly seventy years old, in response to an invitation from the 
president, made our country a visit. He stayed more than a 
year, and visited every state in the Union. He was received 
everywhere with the greatest enthusiasm, the survivors of the 
Revolution showing the deepest feeling at again clasping the 
hand of their old comrade-in-arms. Lafayette had joined 
our struggle for independence at its darkest hour ; he had 
expended large sums of money from his private fortune to 
help our cause; he had brought us soldiers and had given 
us the prestige of his great name; in joining us, he relin- 
quished his home and a certain career of distinction in his own 
country; he repeatedly risked his life in our service; and he 
had joined his fortunes with ours from a pure sympathy with 
the oppressed, an ideal love of abstract liberty; he had not 

1 Schouler, " History of the United States," Vol. Ill, p. 288. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 2/1 

suffered our wrongs or borne our yoke. We were deeply in 
debt to him and anxious to show our appreciation of his noble 
conduct. Congress seized this opportunity, when he visited 
our country in his old age, broken in fortune, suffering the loss 
of political power at home, to express our gratitude. Two 
hundred thousand dollars and twenty-four thousand acres of 
land were voted to him as a slight expression of the affectionate 
remembrance of a grateful people. Some of the states were 
eager to add special grants to the national grant, but Lafayette 
thought it best not to accept the state grants.^ 

422. The Presidential Election. — This year there were 
four candidates for the presidency, all calling themselves Re- 
publicans. Andrew Jackson received 99 electoral votes, John 
Quincy Adams, 84; W. H. Crawford, 41; and Henry Clay, 
37. As none of the candidates had a majority, there was no 
election, and it became the duty of the House to select a presi- 
dent. Clay threw his strength for Adams, who, with him, 
favored high tariff and loose construction of the Constitution, 
and Adams was elected. 



^ The American youth who loves liberty cannot find a better subject for study 
than the career of Lafayette. His connection with our Revolution was merely a 
picturesque and significant incident in a long life devoted to the cause of constitu- 
tional liberty. His career was one marked by the most extreme vicissitudes : he 
was one of the leading factors in the Revolution, a few years after the American 
struggle, in his own country ; his party lost its power, and Lafayette to save his life 
fled from the country ; he was captured and thrown into an Austrian prison, where 
he spent several years ; he was liberated by the great Napoleon ; again became an 
important figure ; again had reverses, and came to this country, broken in fortune, 
and having lost his seat in the French legislature ; but before his death, after visiting 
America, he again became prominent and powerful. He followed the star of liberty 
through good and evil report, through the darkest nights and through days of the 
greatest splendor ; he risked his life by the peasant's side against the oppressor's 
tyranny, and he threw his sheltering arm around the dethroned monarch to protect 
him from the despotic fury of the mob ; and through his long career he was the same 
brave, true, chivalrous knight, the same consistent democrat, the same picturesque, 
heroic figure. 



2/2 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

423. Summary. — The president's northern tour aroused patriotic 
feeling and added to his personal popularity. The Federalist party, which 
had violently opposed the war, was ruined by the successful result 
achieved, and by the overwhelming endorsement of the new president, 
whom it had also opposed. The Seminole Indians were severely punished 
by Jackson. Florida, which served as a refuge to these lawless Indians, 
was sold to us by Spain for ^5,000,000. Mississippi, Alabama and Illinois 
were admitted as states. Missouri's request for admission as a state brought 
up a new and bitter agitation of the slavery question. Missouri was admitted 
under a compromise which forbade slavery in all other Louisiana territory 
north of 36° 30', leaving the question to the choice of the inhabitants in 
territory south of this limit. The Erie Canal, extending from Lake Erie 
to the Hudson (363 miles), was completed in 1825. The Cumberland 
Road was built from Maryland to Wheeling. President Monroe declared 
that the United States would oppose any attempt on the part of European 
powers to gain control of any countries in America. Lafayette made a 
tour of our country, and was presented with money and land as an expres- 
sion of our gratitude. 

424. Thought Questions. — Give brief sketch of the history of Florida 
up to the time of its purchase by the United States. (Treat of its dis- 
covery, exploration, settlement, population, conflicts with neighboring 
colonies, changes of ownership.) Why are canals of less importance now 
than formerly.? Do you consider the Monroe Doctrine justifiable? Give 
your reasons. What do you consider the most important event of this 
administration .'' 



John Quincy Adams's Administration. 
One Term: 1825-1829. 

425. Services and Character of the New President. — John 
Quincy Adams, son of the second president, was born in 
Massachusetts, in 1767, and lived to be 81 years of age. 
Most of his life was spent in office. When he was but twenty- 
seven years old, Washington appointed him minister to the 
Netherlands. At different times, he was our minister to Hol- 
land, Germany, Russia, and England. As our representative, 
he spent fifteen years at foreign courts. While abroad, he 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 



273 




served on several special missions, among them the important 
one that negotiated the treaty of Ghent that closed the war of 
18 1 2. He was secretary 
of state in Monroe's cab- 
inet and succeeded Mon- 
roe as president. In less 
than two years after his 
retirement from the presi- 
dency, he was elected to 
Congress from his district 
in Massachusetts, and 
served continuously until 
his death fifteen years 
later. He was a pure 
patriot and statesman of 
great learning and experi- 
ence. He was cold, blunt, 
and haughty in manner, 
the reverse of the simple Republican that he was in principle. 

426. Material Advancement. — The Erie Canal was opened 
during the year of Adams's inauguration, and it was seen that 
by its means freight could be handled profitably at one-tenth 
the former cost of transportation. The demonstration of this 
fact gave a great impetus to canal-building. Canals were pro- 
jected by individuals, companies, and states, and for many of 
them aid was asked from Congress. Pennsylvania wished to 
connect Pittsburg and Philadelphia, Ohio proposed to join Lake 
Erie and the Ohio River, Virginia and Maryland united on a 
favorite plan, and it was prophesied that a waterway would 
finally be made between the Pacific ports of Oregon and Phila- 
delphia. Many of these canals were actually completed, and 
no doubt canal-building would have gone beyond the most ex- 
travagant prophecies of the day if something better had not 



John Quincy Adams. 



274 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



speedily been found in railroads. Steamboats were to be 
found in great numbers along our western coast and on our 
western rivers. Steamships had crossed the ocean by this 
time ; but they were not depended upon for regular trips. 
Canals aided commerce in the East, and steamboats on the 
Ohio and Mississippi were fast developing the West. A few 



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^ 


9mm- 


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fcif 




.rM 




C^ 


^^ 



m 



Mohawk Valley, showing Erie Canal. 

miles of railroad track were now in use, but the cars were 
drawn by horses. The locomotive was not tried until a year 
or so after Adams's administration closed. Illuminating gas 
was first successfully used in London in 1 8 13. It came into 
general use in New York City in 1825, but the other cities 
were much slower in taking hold of it and it was many years 
before it came to be used in the small towns. 



427. Adams's Policy. — Adams's views were in perfect har- 
mony with this spirit of development ; and it was the purpose 
of the president to encourage progress with all the influence 
his administration could command. He boldly declared, in his 
inaugural address, that his administration would stand or fall 
on the policy of internal improvements. In his first annual 
message, he urged Congress to multiply roads and canals, 



PERIOD OF devp:lopment. 275 

endow a national university, make appropriations for scientific 
research, and erect an observatory.^ 

428. Failure of the Policy. — Congress paid very little at- 
tention to the policy outlined by the president. The " Era of 
Good Feeling," of Monroe's administration, was followed in 
Adams's administration by the growth of new parties,^ political 
agitation, personal and party rivalries and bitterness. Many 
thought it unjust that Adams, who had fewer votes than Jack- 
son (§ 422), should have been selected for the presidency; and 
the president was unpopular with those who thought so. The 
fact that Henry Clay, whose influence caused this minority 
candidate to be elected, was immediately made secretary of 
state, gave rise to the charge that the president and secretary 
had made a corrupt bargain.* These condemnations were used 
very successfully by politicians to make the president and his 
administration unpopular. Besides there were many people 
who thought that internal improvements should be taken care 
of by state appropriations and believed that it was wrong to 
appropriate national revenues for these purposes. In the end, 
an appropriation of $30,000 for repairs on the Cumberland 
Road (§ 419), an order for the removal of obstructions from 

1 In 1835, when a member of Congress, he was 'made chairman of the Congres- 
sional committee that was to consider the bequest of James Smithson, of London, of 
^400,000 to estabHsh at Washington an institution for the diffusion of knowledge. 
He presented a very able report, and introduced the bill creating the Smithsonian 
Institution, an institution of which the nation has since grown justly proud. The 
ex-president counted his services in connection with this institution among the most 
valuable of those rendered by him to his country. 

2 The Clay and Adams factions united and called themselves National Repub- 
licans. They were " loose constructionists," believed in public improvements at 
national expense and in a high tax on imports. Those who opposed the administra- 
tion called themselves Democrats. They believed in holding closely to the Constitu- 
tion, in a low tariff, and in using the national revenues only for the support of the 
government. 

3 Senator Randolph, of Virginia, referred to the matter as the contract between 
" Puritan and blackleg." Clay challenged Randolph and a duel was fought. Neither 
duellist was hurt. 



2/6 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the Ohio River, grants of some public lands in ai/d of canals, 
turnpikes, and to establish some institutions of learning, was 
the little that Congress would do in response to the glowing 
message that had asked so much. 

429. The Creek Land Trouble. — By an agreement with 
Georgia, in 1802, in consideration of the territory which after- 
wards made the States of Alabama and Mississippi, the United 
States undertook to deliver to Georgia the lands held by the 
Indians in the state. In carrying out this agreement, several 
millions of acres of land had been bought from the Indians 
and the title transferred to Georgia ; but there was still a large 
section of this land in the possession of the Indians. The 
people of the state began to complain of the delay in effecting 
the total transfer. Negotiations were again begun with the 
Indians. In 1825, a treaty was made^ that ceded the re- 
mainder of the Georgia lands and a large tract in Alabama 
besides. But the Indians immediately repudiated the treaty, 
saying that it was fraudulent ; and expressed their savage indig- 
nation by burning the house of their agent, General Mcintosh, 
and afterwards murdering him. They sent a delegation to 
Washington to show that the treaty had been obtained by cor- 
rupt means and to ask a reconsideration. President Adams 
thought the treaty unfair and probably unfairly obtained. He 
sent a body of troops to Georgia with instructions to their gen- 
eral to obtain a new cession about which there could be no 
question. Under the direction of the Georgia authorities the 
survey of the new lands acquired by the Mcintosh treaty had 
already begun. The federal officer asked that the survey 
cease. The governor, taking the position that the lands had 
been turned over to the state, and could be managed at the 
state's discretion, insisted that the survey should proceed. 

^ The United States w^^s represented by two agents, the Indians by General 
Mcintosh, their chief. 



m 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 2// 

The president finally notified the governor that he would ex- 
pect all surveys to cease until Congress should consider the 
matter. There was further controversy between the state and 
federal authorities, and considerable excitement arose in 
Georgia. In the end, a new and undisputed cession was made 
by which the Indians relinquished the lands and bound them- 
selves to emigrate to a new home beyond the Mississippi. 

430. Character of the Period. — The people had already 
shown a great interest in public improvements. They saw the 
advantages to be gained by good roads, open waterways, cheap 
exchange of products. The president urged Congress to aid 
the people in developing the country. But Congress believed 
that it had no right to use national funds to aid any enterprise 
not wholly national in its character. So Congress granted very 
little of all the president asked. But progress was the watch- 
word of the day. By means of aid from states, and from 
private enterprise, improvements multiplied in all parts of the 
country. The advancement was as great as the president had 
hoped, though it was not brought about as he had planned it. 

431. Summary. — The Erie Canal, opened in 1825, proved that freight 
could be carried by it at one-tenth the price paid for the old wagon trans- 
portation. Other canals were built and many more were planned. Rail- 
roads, however, soon checked the growth of canals. Steamboats were to 
be found on our coasts and on our large rivers. Steamships crossed the 
ocean. Illuminating gas was used in New York City in 1825. The presi- 
dent's policy was to build up public improvements with the national reve- 
nues. Congress opposed this policy and granted very little that he asked. 
Improvements went forward rapidly by means of private enterprise. In 
settling an old agreement, the Creek lands in Georgia were bought by the 
government and transferred to the state. 

432. Thought Questions. — What benefits result from cheap and rapid 
transportation .'' Of the six presidents so far considered, who served only 
one term ? Account for the failure of these two to be reelected. What 
was the distinguishing feature of John Quincy Adams's administration.? 



2/8 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Topical Analysis (Development of the United States). 

^ 347. The First President. 

„ „, , , . f Enthusiasm of the people. 

348. The Inauguration, i r^ , . ^, 
"^ I Delay in the ceremony. 

^ ,. . , ^ ,. f The Federalists. 

349. Political Parties. ■{ ^^, * .• tt j v ^ 
-^^^ [ 1 he Anti-Federalists. 

C Population. 

350. The New Nation. ^ Area. 
(^ Patriotism. 

r^-, -r^- J. r^ -, • ^ ^ Thc presldcnt's policy. 

351. The First Cabinet. < ^^ ^ . j 
^■^ [ Officers appomted. 

„, f The public debt. 

352. Finances. <^ ._ ..^ , , 
(^ Hamilton s plans. 

353. The Whiskey Insurrection. <^ ^ "V 
^^^ •' [^ Incidents. 

f Pioneers in the West. 

354. Extension of Frontier. ^ Conflicts with the Indians. 
[_ New states. 

f France and England. 

355. Foreign Relations. <j Citizen Genet. 
1^ Treaty with England. 

f The inventor. 

356. The Cotton Gin. -{ The invention. 
(^ Results. 

357. The Second Term. 

Travel and news. 



Horses and plows. 
Stoves and fuel. 
School apparatus. 



1 



358. Condition of the Country. 

"" 361. The New President. 

^ «, ji j^-, ^ -^ - ( Site of the city. 

362. Change of the Capital, i r.- . • ^ ( r- ^ 1 • 

*^ [^ District of Columbia. 

^ ^ , - .^t -r, f Quarrel with the Directory. 

363. Trouble with France. < ^ , ■' 

I Steps toward war. 

364. Death of Washington. 

365. The Alien and Sedition Laws. 

^^ _>, ,-. . . jtx X 1 f Opposition to the Alien and 

366. The Virginia and Kentucky vT ,. . 

^ ^ , ^. ^ Sedition Laws. 

Resolutions. » .• r^r- • • j t^ 

1^ Action of Virginia and Kentucky. 

367. Treaty with France. 

.„ _ ._ ^. , „, j_. f Complication. 

368. Presidential Election. •{ r^. , , 

^ 1 Fmal settlement. 



T m 

00 H 

7 < 

« H 
O <J 

o 
CO 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 2/9 

371. The New President. 

372. Republican Simplicity. Jefferson's course. 

f Depredations of the pirates. 

373. Pirates of the J Practice of European nations. 
Mediterranean. ] Action of the United States. 

[ Treaty. 

374. A New State. 

Importance of the Mississippi. 



^ 37 5. The Louisiana Purchase 
H 



< 



Different owners of Louisiana. 
Purchase by the United States. 
Results. 

f Purpose. 
376. Lewis and Clark Expedition. <^ Route. 
Q [ Results. 

f Action of England and France. 



^ 377. Trouble with England. -^ The Embargo Act. 

Q [^ Repeal of the Act. 

2 o . ^ . ^ r Duel with Hamilton. 

« 378. Aaron Burr's Treason. <^ t. • 1 r 

g ^ [ Trial for treason. 

pL, 379. Importation of Slaves Prohibited. 

»-^ C The inventor. 

384. The First Steamboat. <( The invention. 
[ Results. 

f 383. The New President. 

384. Difficulties of the J Disputes with England and France. 
Administration. [ Policy of United States. 

„, ^ . ^ ,. . f Negotiations with England. 

385. The Process of Relief. <^ ^, ,. ,. •., tt 
^ -^ I Negotiations with France. 

f Indian uprising. 

386. The Tippecanoe Incident. <j Harrison's campaign. 

1^ Feeling against England. 

387. Wrongs to our Seamen. 

00 -rv , X. ^ ,„ r Grievances against England. 

388. Declaration of War. i ,,, j , f 
-^ I War declared. 

'389. First Movement against Canada. 

C Constitution and Guerriere. 
390, 391. Naval Battles. ■{ Wasp and Frolic. 
o J t American success. 



< 



( Queenstown Heights. 

392. Invasion of Canada. < Disgraceful conduct of militia. 

[ Failure of this movement. 

393. Madison's Reelection 



28o 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



395. Plan of Land Forces. 



396-9. Events in 
the West. 



400. Events in the East 



394, 401. On the Sea. 



f Raisin River massacre. 

I Forts Meigs and Stephenson. 

Victory on Lake Erie. 

Invasion of Canada ; Thames victory. 

Results of the Western campaign. 

Invasion of Canada : Toronto. 
Defense of Sackett's Harbor. 
Canada again invaded, 
l^ Movement against Montreal. 

f Chesapeake and Shaimoii. 
-l Disadvantages overcome. 
1^ Ravages on Atlantic coast. 



402. The Creek Uprising. 



Massacre at Fort Mims. 
Battle of Horseshoe Bend. 



f Chippewa. 
403, 404. Last Invasion J Niagara Falls, 
of Canada. | Fort Erie. 

[ Withdrawal from Canada. 



405. 



Battle of Lake 
Champlain. 



Reduced forces of Americans. 
British attacking forces. 
(^ The victory. 

The blockade. 
406. Along the Coast. <j Sacking of the capital. 
Attack on Baltimore. 



407. 



The Hartford 
Convention. 



f Dissatisfaction in New England. 
<( Meeting of the convention. 
[ Effect. 



408. Peace. 



The treaty. 
Results of the war. 



^; 00 

w " 



f f Battle unnecessary. 

409. Battle of New Orleans. \ The opposing armies. 
[ The victory. 



410. New States. 



From Louisiana purchase. 
From Northwest Territory. 



PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT. 



28 






' 413. The New President. 

r Purpose. 

414. President's Northern Tour. -{ Incidents. 

[ Result. 

( The Seminole War. 

415. Extension of Territory. <| Purchase of Florida. 

[ States admitted. 

f The sections balanced. 

. -{ Opinion in the North. 

[ Opinion in the South. 

The dispute. 
The settlement. 
The Erie Canal. 
The Cumberland Road. 
f The occasion. 

420. The Monroe Doctrine. ^ The " Doctrine." 

[ The result. 

421. Lafayette's Visit. 

^ . , , . , ^, . . r No decision by electorc. 

422. Presidential Election, i ^^ . . , , tt 

1^ Decision by the House. 

'425. The New President. 

f Canals and steamboats. 
426. Material Advancement. -{ Railroads. 

(^ Illuminating gas. 



416. Slavery. 

[ Opinion in the 

417. The Missouri Compromise. < 

r Thf 

418. 419. Improvements. 



5 



427. The President's Policy. 

428. Failure of the Policy. 



Recommendations to Congress. 

Unpopularity of the president. 
Action of Congress. 



429. The Creek 
Land Trouble, 



f Agreement between Georgia and United States. 
<( Trouble between Georgia and the Indians. 



[ Trouble between Georgia and United States. 
1^430. Character of the Period. 



282 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



m 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 

(Jackson to Buchanan.) 
Jackson's Administration. 

Two Terms: 1829-1837, 

433. Services and Character of the New President. — 

Andrew Jackson was born in North Carolina in 1767. He 
early made his home in Tennessee, was a resident of the state 
when he was elected to the presidency, and after serving his 
term returned to his estate there, where he resided till his 
death in 1845. His chief services to his country previous to 
his election to the presidency were of a military character. 
With volunteer and independent parties 
he aided the patriots in the Revolution. 
He was captured by the British and much 
mistreated by them. In the war of 18 12, 
he distinguished himself by his wonderful 
defense of New Orleans (§ 409). His 
great popularity was due to the people's 
enthusiasm for him as a daring and suc- 
cessful military chieftain. He was, besides, 
, , a- western man and carried the support 

Andrew Jackson. ^ 

of this growing territory. He was a man 
of the people in his origin, in his habits, and in his methods of 
thought ; and the plain people of the South and West elected 
him to the presidency and loyally supported him through the 
eight years of his stormy contests with politicians and would-be 
aristocrats. He was a man of strong will, disposed to control 
every movement with which he was connected. He was honest 
and fearless and blunt of speech. He was a loyal citizen, pre- 
pared to sacrifice property or life to his country; but his methods 
were those of a partisan and he sometimes mistook his own 
prejudices for national principles. 




GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 283 

434. Changes in Office. — Jackson dominated his adminis- 
tration to a degree unusual with presidents. He was familiar 
with the methods of military government which cause the 
prompt and unhesitating execution of the orders of the superior 
officers. He had definite policies and principles to execute. 
Looking upon himself as the chief officer of a party that advo- 
cated those principles, he called to aid him in the execution of 
those policies only officers who had faith in the party's plans. 
He, therefore, removed from office those bitterly opposed to 
these party policies and appointed from his own party men 
who believed these policies for the best interests of the country. 
These political removals subjected the president to much 
criticism ; ^ but succeeding presidents have followed the same 
practice, believing that a government carried on through parties 
must have the party policies executed by those who believe in 
them. 

435. The National Bank. — Up to this time, the financial 
transactions of the government had been managed through a 
national bank situated at Philadelphia^ (§ 352). This central 
bank had twenty-five branches in the different states. Its 
charter, granted in 1816, was for a term of twenty years. 
Jackson, in his first message to Congress (1829), ques- 
tioned both the soundness of the law creating the bank and 
the wisdom of its continuance. He said that it had failed 
in one of the chief purposes for which it was established, 
viz.: that of making a uniform and sound currency. He 
suggested that Congress try some other plan. His utter- 
ances on this subject caused excited discussion all over 

1 " Of Jackson's procedure in this matter it can be said, in partial excuse, so bitter 
had been the opposition to him by office-holders as well as others, that many removals 
were undoubtedly indispensable in order to the efficiency of the public service." — 
Andrews's History of the United States^ Vol. I, p. 357. 

2 The first United States bank was chartered for twenty years, 1791-1811. 



284 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the country. Gradually, as this discussion continued, and 
voters began to take sides for or against the bank, the ques- 
tion of the renewal of its charter became a leading issue in 
politics. The president and his friends continually and vigor- 
ously opposed the renewal of the charter ; Henry Clay and his 
friends, and the bank's friends, and the enemies of the presi- 
dent united in upholding the bank and in pressing for a new 
charter. In his second message, the president again opposed 
the re-charter of the bank, and a bill to renew the charter for 
fifteen years was killed by his veto. Late in 1833, in the 
vacation of Congress, the president, through the secretary of 
the treasury, began depositing the nation's funds, as they 
came in, in state banks. Before March of the following 
year, more than six million dollars had been paid out from the 
national bank. The necessity of producing so much money in 
so short a time necessarily strained the resources of the bank 
to the utmost ; but it stood firm and met all engagements. 
When Congress met. Senator Clay introduced a resolution cen- 
suring the president and the secretary of the treasury for 
withdrawing the public patronage from the bank. A long and 
angry debate followed. When a vote was reached, it was 
found that the Senate was for condemning the president's 
course and in favor of returning the funds to the national 
bank. But the House supported the president and passed a 
bill regulating the deposit in the state banks. The Congress 
o^ 1^35 passed an act pursuing the president's policy in regard 
to the bank, authorizing and regulating the deposit of public 
funds in state banks, and permitting the secretary of the 
treasury to sell the government's stock in the national bank, 
thereby ending all national connection with it. The charter 
expired in 1836 and it was not renewed. 

436. Tariff Development From an early day the amount 

of duty to be laid and the choice of imports to be taxed have 




JOHN C. CALHOUN. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 285 

formed important questions of legislation and have divided 
political parties. The first tariff act, passed during Washing- 
ton's administration (§ 352), was primarily for the purpose 
of raising a revenue for the expenses of our government and 
for paying our debts. The people of new England favored 
a low tariff because they were chiefly engaged in commerce, 
and the lower the tax on imports the larger would be the 
volume of trade. The southern cotton-growing states also 
favored a low tariff. The destruction of our foreign commerce 
during the war of 181 2 caused us to manufacture many 
articles formerly bought of other countries. But we were not 
able to manufacture many things as cheaply as they could be 
imported. In 18 16, Congress was asked to raise the tax on 
imports so that the price on certain articles would be increased 
to such a degree that our own people could afford to manu- 
facture them.^ A bill having this object was passed — chiefly 
by the Republicans. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, 
led in supporting it. The Federalists and the New Englanders, 
led by Daniel Webster, opposed it. 

New England, lacking a fertile soil and a mild climate, 
could not compete with other sections in agricultural produc- 
tions ; but as it possessed water and fuel in abundance it 
gradually developed into a great manufacturing region. With 
this change of occupation there was a gradual change of 
opinion as to the value of a high or protective tariff. 
A manufacturing region is, of course, directly benefited by 
a high tariff, as the price of manufactured articles is increased 
thereby. On the other hand, many people in the South who 
had formerly supported a high tariff' had come to see that agri- 
culture must be their chief occupation, and that their interest 
lay in keeping down the price of manufactured articles that 
they must buy. In 1824 the vote for a bill raising the tariff 

1 This kind of tariff is called " protective," because it protects the home manu- 
facturer from foreign competition. 



286 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY, 

showed an increasing sentiment in favor of it in New England 
and a decreasing sentiment in South Carolina and the adjoining 
region. Its chief strength came from central and western states. 
It was opposed by Webster and many New Englanders and by 
the people of the Southern states. The bill was passed. 

In 1828, a bill was offered, providing still higher protection 
than the bill of 1824. Webster was one of its chief advocates.^ 
New England was strongly in favor of it. Calhoun and the 
people of his state were bitterly opposed to it. The people 
of the cotton-growing states were opposed to it There was 
an angry contest in Congress and much excitement in the 
country. The bill was passed. 

437. Nullification. — Early in Jackson's administration, this 
tariff controversy led to one of the most famous debates (in 1830) 
ever held in the Senate. Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, 
in a series of speeches that rank among the greatest efforts of 
human oratory, advanced the views that the national government 
had no power to lay high protective tariffs, and that the states 
might justly and constitutionally refuse to pay them ; that it lay 
within the province of a state's power to "nullify" or set aside 
an act of Congress. Daniel Webster, senator from Massachu- 
setts, replied to Senator Hayne, and in advocating the power of 
the Federal government, and pleading for the preservation of the 
Union, made a speech that is one of the world's great master- 
pieces of eloquence. Two years later, a new tariff bill (raising 
some duties against which the South had protested, though the 
sum of the duties was somewhat lowered) was introduced in 
Congress and led to a fierce and prolonged controversy. The 
bill was brought forward under the advice and management of 
Henry Clay. The plan he advocated was called the " Ameri- 
can System" — a policy of high tariff and internal improve- 
ments. It was violently opposed by the whole South Carolina 

1 Daniel Webster at first advocated free trade, as that was the policy favored by 
his Massachusetts constituency; but he afterwards became a protectionist when 
Massachusetts became a manufacturing state. 




DANIEL WEBSTER 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 28/ 

delegation, led by Senator Hayne and Vice-President Calhoun. 
The bill — which had been carefully framed to aid all the manu- 
facturing sections of the country — when it came to a vote 
(July, 1832) passed by a large majority. In the November 
following, South Carolina held a state convention called by the 
state Legislature, and presided over by the governor, which 
declared the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 null and void and not 
enforceable after the ist of February, 1833. The Legislature 
immediately passed the laws necessary to carry out the wishes 
of the convention in resisting the collection of duties in the 
ports of South Carolina. President Jackson took prompt and 
decided steps to enforce the law. He sent an officer and 
a sloop-of-war to Charleston to protect the custom officers in 
the collection of duties. He posted troops on the border 
where they would be at ready command in an emergency. In 
December, he issued a proclamation to the people of the state, 
upholding the right and the power of the Federal government, 
and admonishing the citizens against resistance. At the 
same time, in his message to Congress, again in session, he 
proposed a reduction of the tariff that had caused the trouble. 
Further war-like preparations were made on both sides ; but in 
the end there was a peaceful adjustment. Calhoun, having re- 
signed the vice-presidency, appeared in Congress as a senator 
from South Carolina, filling a vacancy caused by the resigna- 
tion of Senator Hayne, and he and Webster held another 
debate on the rights and prerogatives of the Federal govern- 
ment in relation to the rights and prerogatives of the states, 
that was as famous as the previous one on the same subject. 
But a compromise tariff bill, advocated by Clay, lowering many 
duties in the line asked by the South, was passed by Congress 
late in February.^ This satisfied South Carolina. The Nullifi- 
cation Ordinance was at once repealed by another state con- 
vention, and all active opposition to the tariff regulations ceased. 

1 South Carolina had postponed the enforcement of her nullification measures 
until March 4. 



288 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

438. Indian Uprisings. — The Sac and the Fox Indians, 
Hving in Wisconsin, agreed to remove to territory set apart for 
them in Iowa. Part of the tribe made the change peaceably ; 
but the chief. Black Hawk, and some of his followers were re- 
moved by force. From the Iowa territory frequent raids were 
made into the surrounding region, and for years the settlers of 
the vicinity lived in fear of attack. 

Some of the Seminole tribe were yet living in Florida. An 
attempt was made to remove them beyond the Mississippi. 
The tribe rose in revolt, and massacred all but four of a band 
of one hundred men. General Taylor marched against the 
Indians, pursued them into the everglades of Florida, and de- 
feated them in a hard-fought battle. They were not entirely 
subdued till 1842, seven years from their first outbreak. Much 
money was spent and many lives were lost in the contests. 

439. The Abolition Crusade: the Pioneers. — Though all 
sections in the United States practiced slavery in the begin- 
ning, there were men here and there who thought it an evil. 
Some of our greatest statesmen. Southern as well as Northern, 
did not hesitate to declare publicly their condemnation of it. 
Many states had, before this time, passed laws to abolish 
slavery either immediately or gradually. Societies had been 
formed to colonize freed slaves out of the country. But the 
first man to devote his life to an effort to free the slaves was 
Benjamin Lundy, a Quaker of New Jersey. He founded 
(182 1) and published for several years in different parts of our 
country — Ohio, Tennessee, Maryland, and other states — a 
journal called TAe Genius of Universal Emancipatioji. The 
editor also labored to form emancipation societies and spoke 
on the subject when he could get audiences. His crusade was 
one of argument and persuasion, and he addressed his appeal 
to the humane and kindly feelings of the white people. At 
Boston, he met and made a convert of William Lloyd Garrison. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 289 

For a short time, Garrison aided Lundy in the publication of 
The Ge?iius; but in 1831, he began printing in Boston an 
abolition paper of his own called The Liberator. Garrison 
condemned slavery in a violent way that provoked much bitter 
feeling. He would not consent to the purchase of the slaves 
nor to their gradual emancipation. He said slavery was a 
crime and the slave-holder a criminal. He demanded the 
immediate and unconditional abolition of slavery. 

440. The Opinions. — Extremists at the South believed 
slavery to be profitable and right and were willing, if need be, 
to leave the Union in order to preserve it. Conservative peo- 
ple, both North and South, believed that it had been recog- 
nized in the formation of the Union and in the making of the 
Constitution, and that efforts to abolish it violated the good 
faith of the compact of the states. Individuals, here and there, 
of this conservative majority condemned slavery on abstract 
grounds and wished that some just means of abolition could 
be devised ; but they could see none, and so strongly censured 
the methods of such men as Garrison. Abolitionists asserted 
that the " Constitution was a covenant with death and an 
agreement with hell," and were anxious that the slave-holding 
states should be cast out of the Union. These were the most 
distinct opinions : necessarily there were many other opinions 
based on minor principles. 

441. The Condition of the Crusade. — Under Garrison's 
influence, many societies were formed in the Northern states 
for the purpose of urging the abolition of slavery. Every pos- 
sible means of agitation was used, speeches were made, articles 
written for the newspapers, candidates of abolition tendencies 
put forward, Congress petitioned, and incendiary circulars sent 
through the mails to all parts of the South. The slaves began 
to feel the influence of the agitation. In Virginia, in 183 1 (the 



290 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

same year that The Liberator first saw the light), there was a 
negro uprising which resulted in the massacre of sixty white 
people. Other uprisings were threatened ; and in many quarters 
slaves became excited and rebellious. The Southern people 
had become very sensitive on this subject. They wanted to 
take extreme measures for the suppression of the abolition agi- 
tation. Garrison, while editing The Genius^ in Baltimore, was 
arrested, fined, and put in jail. Georgia offered five thousand 
dollars reward for the arrest of any one found circulating 
The Liberator in the state. Packages of incendiary pamphlets 
were taken from the mails and, together with effigies of leading 
abolition agitators, publicly burned. But the great mass of the 
people were for preserving the Union as it stood, and were in 
favor of suppressing in a lawful way all disorganizing violence, 
whether North or South. By a vote nearly unanimous the 
Senate refused (1836) to grant a petition to abolish slavery in 
the District of Columbia. The House, later in the same year, 
declared that: (i) Congress had no constitutional authority to 
interfere with the institution of slavery in any state ; (2) that 
Congress ought not to interfere with slavery in the District of 
Columbia; and by a vote of more than two-thirds of the mem- 
bers, passed a resolution that it would not consider in any way 
a petition, memorial, resolution, or proposition in regard to 
slavery. So, although the abolition agitators had created much 
excitement, it was apparent that a great majority of the people 
were opposed to the agitation and the strife it engendered. 

442. Railways; New States. — Railways were first used in 
England for the purpose of transporting mineral ore from mines 
to some convenient shipping point. The cars on these first rail- 
ways were drawn by horses. The first railway built in this coun- 
try (1826) extended from Quincy, Mass., to the Neponset River, 
a distance of five miles, and was for the purpose of transport- 
ing granite from the quarry to a shipping point. The cars were 




GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 29I 

drawn by horses. A few other railways for similar purposes 
and operated in the same way were built in the country. 
Several unsuccessful efforts were made in England to con- 
struct steam-engines that 
would draw the cars. A 
like experiment was made 
with a steam-engine in 
Pennsylvania in 1829. 
George Stephenson, an 
English engineer, was the ^'^''^ '^'"«^'"" f^^''^^^ (^'^ " ^^^"'^^ ^°^^ ">• 
first to make a really successful locomotive. This locomotive 
was tried in America in 1831. But Americans immediately 
began the manufacture of locomotives from their own patterns^ 

that w^ere better adapted to the 
needs of our country. With 
the success of locomotives, 
railroad building developed 
very rapidly. Before the close 
of Jackson's administration, 
there were fifteen hundred 
miles of railway in the United 
^ ^ States. Railways were just 

-^." " - -** what was needed for the 

Stephenson's Locomotive (the " Rocket"). dcVClopmCnt of OUr COUntry. 

They were seized upon immediately and we have never ceased 
building them. The United States now have nearly as many 
miles of railway as are found in the remainder of the world. 

Arkansas, originally from the Louisiana Purchase, was ad- 
mitted as a state in 1836. Michigan, the fourth state from the 
Northwest Territory, was admitted in 1837. 

443. The Whig Party. — The president soon had several 
classes of people opposed to him. Those who supported the 
bank, those who favored a high protective tariff, those who be- 

1 The first successful American locomotive, called the " Arabian," was built in 
1833. ^^ ^^^ ^*^^^ running in 1883, but during this year was destroyed by fire. 




292 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

lieved in state sovereignty,^ and the nullifiers could unite in 
opposition to Jackson. These factions began to call them- 
selves Whigs, though they did not at this time form a close 
party organization. Clay, who had been the leader of the 
National Republicans, was now the leader of the Whig party, 
the Republican party's successor. The name "W^hig" was 
selected (1834) because that was the name of the English 
party that had resisted the tyranny of King George III., and 
this American party meant to resist what they called the 
tyranny of Jackson. However, the Whigs were united on 
nothing but opposition to Jackson. Different factions of the 
party put forward different candidates for the presidency. The 
Democratic party put forward but one candidate. Van Buren, 
and gained an easy victory. 

444. Summary. — The president made the custom of removing politi- 
cal enemies from office and appointing political friends, conspicuous. He 
waged a long contest against the national bank. The bank's charter ex- 
pired in 1836 and was not renewed. The national funds were placed in 
state banks. Parties were divided on the tariff tax. Those who believed 
in "protecting" home manufactures introduced a bill laying higher duties 
on imports. This bill was bitterly opposed in the South. After the bill 
was passed by Congress, South Carolina held a convention and " nullified " 
the act. The president sent a sloop-of-war and troops to Charleston to 
enforce the collection of duties. In its next session. Congress modified 
the law so that it was not so objectionable to the South. South Carolina 
repealed her Nullification Ordinance. This administration marks the rapid 
rise of the abolition crusade. Papers and pamphlets were published, socie- 
ties were formed, and orators spoke in opposition to slavery. Congress 
refused to pass any anti-slavery laws or to interfere in any way. Locomo- 
tives came into use on railways and revolutionized the methods of civiliza- 
tion. The Whig party was formed as a successor to the National Repub- 
lican party. Arkansas and Michigan were admitted. 

1 It was the doctrine of a large party in the South, that the Union was simply a 
compact between the states ; that any state could withdraw from this compact and 
leave the Union at its own pleasure ; that the state was supreme and not the general 
government. This was the doctrine of State Sovereignty. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



293 



445. Thought Questions. — What can be said in favor of permitting the 
president to fill the offices, under his administration, with his friends and 
adherents ? To what evils may this practice lead ? Are United States 
funds deposited in national banks to-day ? Debate : Resolved that a pro- 
tective tariff is best for the United States.' Give two instances in our 
history where, through self-interest, a section has changed or modified its 
political beliefs. Compare the effects of the Alien and Sedition Laws with 
those of the Tariff Act of 1832. What do you consider the most important 
event of this administration ? 



"'^ 



i^^-^V 



Van Buren's Administration. 

One Term : 1837-1841. 

446. Services and Character of the New President — 
Martin Van Buren was born in New York in 1782. He early 
evinced an ambition 
and a capacity for pub- 
lic service. For most 
of his life, he was the 
chief factor in the pol- 
itics of his state. After 
a short service as state 
senator, he was elected 
to the United States 
Senate. He was after- 
wards governor of New 
York. He espoused 
Jackson's candidacy 
for the presidency, and 
through his influence. 
New York cast her 
deciding vote for the 
old warrior. He was appointed secretary of state by President 
Jackson and resigned the governorship to accept it. He 
resigned the secretaryship after two years' service, and 




Martin Van Buren. 



294 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

shortly afterward was appointed minister to England. He was 
elected vice-president for Jackson's second term, and succeeded 
his friend to the presidency. He was an adept in practical 
politics, being expert in the organization and management of 
parties. The importance of New York's voice in national 
councils made Van Buren, who was the sovereign state's 
spokesman, a national figure, and put him on the road to the 
highest preferment. But he proved himself a statesman as 
well as a politician, and while president, he performed the 
duties of his high station with wisdom and courage. 

447. The Financial Panic. — The period preceding and 
embracing Jackson's administration had been one of great 
prosperity. Roads and canals were being built in all parts of 
the country. There was also much railway building. Such 
enterprises require large sums of money. The rapid material 
development of the country gave a headlong impulse to specu- 
lation and trade. Farms multiplied, cities sprang up, banks 
were everywhere. Every one seemed to be striving to become 
rich and to be succeeding in the effort. But the easy success 
led to over-confidence, to recklessness, and to ruin. Specula- 
tion ran wild ; people borrowed too much ; the banks loaned 
too willingly. The government lost large sums of money 
through the failure of some of the state banks. The banks of 
New York suspended in a body, and numbers of banks in 
other parts of the Union followed. Business failures were 
numerous, trade stopped, factories shut down, enterprises were 
abandoned. 

448. The Sub-Treasury. — The president called an extra 
session of Congress and in his message to the body proposed a 
new treasury plan. He advocated the government's use of 
specie^ only in its transactions. He thought it best to cut 

1 Specie means coin of silver or gold. Paper money is only the government's 
promissory note to pay in specie. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM 



295 



away from banks altogether and urged the building of govern- 
ment vaults for the safe keeping and handling of government 
funds by the government's own officers. A bill embodying the 
president's plans finally passed, in 1840, and was the beginning 
of our present modified, developed system. Vaults and safes 
were supplied in the treasury building at Washington, and in 
six of the principal cities of the Union " sub-treasuries " were 
established for government deposits and with government 
officers to receive and disburse funds. 

449. Slavery. — The abolition agitation at the North con- 
tinued and began to be of national importance. It was esti- 
mated that abolition societies contained, in 1837, one hundred 
and fifty thousand members. New abolition papers were 
established and some of the Northern states made new laws 
that reflected the new ideas of the emancipation crusade. 
Elijah Lovejoy, editor of an emancipation sheet at Alton, 
Illinois, while defending his press from destruction was killed 
by the mob. The Abolitionists used the incident for political 
purposes. Wendell Phillips made his first great speech in 
behalf of the cause to which he afterward devoted his wonder- 
ful oratorical talents, in discussing the Lovejoy matter in a 
public meeting in Boston.^ Feeling at the North was divided, 
and the extreme wing of the Abolitionists was as bitterly con- 
demned by the majority of its own section as by the Southern 
people. Congress again refused to receive the numerous eman- 
cipation petitions that came pouring in. Southern people 
became more and more restless under the continued and 
violent agitation of the Abolitionists. When a Northern mem- 

1 Phillips was a man of culture and independent character. He joined the ex- 
treme wing of the Abolition party that clamored for disunion. He refused to take 
the oath to support the Constitution of his country. He was afterwards a champion 
of the temperance movement, of the labor agitation, of the woman's rights crusade. 
He devoted his whole life to the advocacy of reforms of one kind or another. 



296 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

ber of Congress made a bitter abolition speech in the House, 
Southern members rose in a body to leave the hall.^ 

450. Scientific Progress. — This period of four years saw 
the beginning of some things that greatly aided and some that 
revolutionized the methods of civilized society : Morse patented 
his magnetic telegraph ; steam vessels began to make regular 
and quick trips across the Atlantic ; James Smithson left a 
fortune for founding a scientific institution in our country ; 
Daguerre's sun-pictures began to be known and to lead the 
way to modern photography ; bold explorers sought to satisfy 
an enlightened curiosity by voyages to the regions of the north 
and of the south poles. 

451. Summary. — Speculation led to a financial panic that caused busi- 
ness failures all over the country. Public enterprises were abandoned and 
trade became stagnant. The president called an extra session of Congress 
and proposed a new plan for handling the public funds. We were to guard 
and control our own money in vaults in the treasury building in Washing- 
ton and in sub-treasuries in different parts of the country. Congress ap- 
proved the plan. Many people joined the anti-slavery crusade. However, 
the majority of the people, North and South, condemned the abolition 
agitation. This was a period of scientific advancement : the telegraph was 
patented, a bequest was received for founding a scientific institution, 
daguerreotypes began to be noticed. 

452. Thought Questions. — Give two reasons for Van Buren's failure 
to be reelected. What do you consider the most important event of this 
administration ? Why ? 

1 " Slade, of Vermont, in a two hours' speech, raked the institution with a merci- 
less severity such as that body had never experienced before." — ScJiouler. Wise, 
of Virginia, rose to his feet and called on his colleagues to leave the hall. But 
Slade was ruled out of order, and the body, amid much confusion, quickly adjourned. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



297 



Harrison and Tyler's Administration. 

One Term: 1841-1845. 

453. Harrison^s Death. — William Henry Harrison, of 
Ohio, the hero of Tippecanoe, and a veteran of the War of 
181 2, was put forward by the Whigs ^ for the presidency. The 
party supported him with the 
greatest enthusiasm. The 
most was made of his quiet 

and modest way of living. 'S^ '^^ 

He was called the "Log- 
Cabin Candidate," and a 
miniature log-cabin, with a 
barrel of cider at the door, 
was a part of every popular 
demonstration in his sup- 
port. Speakers stirred the 
pulse of the people with 
glowing accounts of his gal- 
lant military services in the ^'""" ^'"^^ ^"^'^°" 

early days.^ He was triumphantly elected. But the old general 
was already in feeble health and the excitement of the campaign 
and the pressure of affairs at the beginning of the administra- 
tion proved to be too much for his shattered strength to endure. 
He died April 4, after having been president but a month.^ 

454. Services and Character of John Tyler. — John Tyler, 
the vice-president, succeeded to the presidency. He was 

1 The National Republicans began to be called Whigs during Jackson's presi- 
dency. Clay was the leader — for a number of years, the dictator — of this party. 

2 The campaign cry was " Tippecanoe and Tyler too." See § 386 for an ac- 
count of the battle of Tippecanoe. 

3 William Henry Harrison was born in Virginia in 1773. He had been governor 
of Indiana Territory twelve years. He was living in Ohio at the time of his election 
to the presidency. 




298 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



born in 1790, and was the son of a distinguished Virginia 
family. He had but to show ordinary ability to be sure of 
political preferment ; but he was possessed of much more than 
average ability. He became a member of the Virginia Legis- 
lature at twenty-one and was reelected several times. He was 
elected to Congress when he was but twenty-six and served 
two terms. In 1825, he was elected governor of his state and 

was reelected on the ex- 
piration of his first term. 
But before the expiration 
of his second term, he was 
elected to the United States 
Senate. He sat in the Sen- 
ate nine years, resigning in 
1836, because he was not 
willing to vote to expunge 
the resolution of censure on 
President Jackson as the 
Legislature of his state had 
instructed him to do. In 
1835, he was put forward 
by some of the Democratic 
states as a candidate for 
the vice-presidency, but was defeated. He was nominated for 
the same position on the Whig ticket, with Harrison for the 
head of the ticket, in 1839, ^^'^^ this time he was elected. 

He was a man of brilliant talents, and of independent char- 
acter. His acceptance of the nomination on the Whig ticket, 
and his succession to the presidency because of his nomina- 
tion, placed him in a false position, as most of his political 
career had been spent in the ardent advocacy of the principles 
of the Democratic party. 

455. The Bank Bills. — Congress, after the sweeping Whig 
victory, hastened to repeal the sub-treasury law enacted during 




John Tyler. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 299 

the last administration. Tliis left the government without any 
system of protecting and managing its funds ; but it was the 
purpose of Congress to provide some plan at once. Trouble 
arose over the selection of a system. Henry Clay, who 
was by common consent the leader of the party, fell back on 
the national bank plan and proposed to create a new bank 
patterned after the old United States Bank of Philadelphia. 
His bill, creating this bank, passed both houses ; but the pres- 
ident sent it back with his veto. A second bill, changed to 
meet the president's wishes or to force his approval, favored 
by Clay and the Whig following, was passed. This bill was 
also vetoed. The party, with Clay at its head, had made the 
creation of a new bank part of its policy, and there was so 
much indignation felt at the president's course that all of his 
cabinet, except Daniel Webster, secretary of state, resigned 
their places. A plan proposed by the president did not get 
the support of Congress, and throughout his administration 
the control and preservation of the funds depended upon his 
own judgment. His management was unusually careful and 
cautious and was very successful. 

456. The Ashburton Treaty. — Recently there had been 
many collisions between American citizens and British subjects 
on the Canadian borders and on the high seas. In the eyes of 
many, our grievances had grown to such an extent that a high- 
spirited nation must, to preserve its dignity, insist upon apology 
and redress. War with Great Britain was again threatening, 
and indeed imminent. After many attempts to adjust the 
difficulties between the two countries had failed, England sent 
Lord Ashburton to Washington to treat with our secretary of 
state in settlement of disputed points. An agreement was 
reached on the most pressing matters in controversy. The 
forty-ninth parallel was decided upon as a line of boundary be- 
tween the United States and Canada, from the Great Lakes to 



300 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the Rocky Mountains ; and the two countries entered into an 
agreement to return criminals escaped from one country to the 
other and to suppress the slave trade on the seas. 

457. Tariff Legislation. — The compromise tariff bill of 
1833 had been framed to provide for a reduction of the rate of 
duty year by year. In 1842, the expenditures of the govern- 
ment exceeded the income. The Whigs thought that the 
remedy for the deficit lay in a higher tariff, and accordingly a 
bill raising the rate was enacted. 

458. The Dorr Rebellion. — In its state government, Rhode 
Island still followed the charter granted it by Charles II. of 
England. This charter granted the right to vote only to 
owners of real estate and their eldest sons. The result was a 
limited and very unequal representation. As universal suffrage 
was the method in every other state, there was much discon- 
tent felt here. Petitions and remonstrances proving useless, 
a new constitution was formed and Thomas W. Dorr was 
elected governor (1842) by a popular vote, most of the votes, 
according to the charter, being illegal. The charter or legal 
voters also elected a governor and contested the legality of the 
new constitution and of Dorr's election. Both sides took up 
arms. Dorr was arrested and tried for treason and sentenced 
to imprisonment for life. But the next year legal voters and 
delegates elected by those who had no right to vote, met by 
common consent in the same convention, and framed a new 
constitution which removed most of the restrictions com- 
plained of. Dorr, after a short imprisonment, was pardoned. 

459. The Mormons. — Joseph Smith, a native of Vermont, 
produced a book which, he said, was a revelation from God. 
Mormon was represented as the author of the book, and the 
agent of the divine revelation. With this book. Smith founded 
a new religious sect. The people who adopted the faith were 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



301 



called Mormons. The Mormons founded a settlement at Nau- 
voo, Illinois. One of their doctrines was that a man might 
have several wives at the same time. Their faith and practices 
were severely condemned by the people around them. In- 
dignation rose to such a pitch that in a riot Smith was killed 
(1844). Under the leadership of Brigham Young, the Mor- 
mons emigrated to the desert region near Salt Lake in Utah. 
By bringing the water from the mountains to their barren 
territory they made it productive, and the Mormons were soon 
among the most prosperous people in the country. Salt Lake 
City became a rich and beautiful city. 

460. The Telegraph. — Professor Morse had already secured 
a patent for his invention, the magnetic telegraph, but he was 
not able to build telegraph 

lines to test his instrument 
properly. Aid was asked 
of Congress. After years 
of waiting, $30,000 was ap- 
propriated to build a line 
between Washington and 
Baltimore, a distance of 
forty miles. The line was 
completed in 1844, and the 
message, "What hath God 
wrought ? " was sent from 
Washington to Baltimore 
by Professor Morse in the 
presence of many distin- 
guished people. There are 
now thousands of miles of telegraph lines, connecting, in 
instant communication, cities and hamlets all over the world. 

461. Extension of Territory : The Annexation of Texas. — 

The vast stretch of the continent bordering on the Pacific 





Professor Morse. 



302 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 




Ocean and the Rio Grande, formerly held by Spain, now be- 
longed to Mexico, that nation having thrown off the Spanish yoke. 
This territory included what is now Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, 

California, Nevada, Utah, and 
part of Colorado. Piece by 
piece, in one way or another, it 
all came into the possession of 
the United States. Texas was 
our first acquisition from it. 

The Texas Revolution 

Mexico, in an effort to people 
Texas, had offered grants of land to immigrants. Some 
Southern states formed Texas colonies. Moses Austin of Mis- 
souri, after much discouragement, obtained permission to estab- 
lish a colony of three hundred American families. But Austin 
died before he could execute his plan. His son, Stephen F. Austin, 
carried out the terms of the contract, gained other concessions 
from the Mexican government, and established in the province 
about twelve hundred families from the United States. In the 
course of time, settlers from the United States became more 
numerous in Texas than Mexicans. These pioneers in the 
wilderness carried with them the love of freedom and the 
notions of government they had imbibed in our own country. 
The inevitable followed. Mexico's arbitrary and imperious 
government and Santa Anna's attempt to overthrow the repub- 
lican constitution forced the Texans into revolt. Texas' in- 
dependence was declared March 2, 1836. But the Mexican 
yoke was thrown off only after a heroic struggle on the part of 
the patriot pioneers. The Texans were hardy, liberty-loving 
settlers, but they were poorly armed and without military 
training. The Mexican army was composed of regular soldiers 
and had the parent state to sustain it with supplies and 
reenforcements. The Texans fought for their rights ; the 



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GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 303 

Mexicans to retain their possessions. The moral advantage 
was on the side of the settlers and they won in the struggle. 
The most important events of the Texas revolution were the 
siege of the Alamo, the massacre of Goliad, and the battle of 
San Jacinto. One hundred and forty-four Texans, taking 
refuge in the Ala-mo in San Antonio, an old Spanish build- 
ing combining a church and a fort, were besieged by a force 
of four thousand Mexicans. A small relief party of thirty- 
two Texans made their way to tli^ inside of the fort. After 
eleven days of resistance the fort was taken by storm and 
every Texan soldier killed (March 6, 1836).^ Near Goliad, 
Colonel Fannin, with about four hundred men, was surrounded 
and attacked by a force of more than two thousand Mexicans. 
The Texans, after a heroic resistance, felt compelled to ask for 
terms. Formal terms of surrender were agreed upon and signed 
by the commanding officers on both sides. The patriot prison- 
ers were then marched back to Goliad. In a few days, in 
barbarous violation of the terms of the treaty and of the rules 
of civilized warfare, the Mexicans stood the captive Texans up 
in rows and ruthlessly shot them down. At San Jacinto (near 
the present city of Houston) General Sam Houston, with seven 
hundred Texans, charging with the battle-cry, " Remember the 
Alamo," " Remember Goliad," routed the Mexican army of 
1500 (April 21, 1836). Santa Anna, the President of Mexico,^ 
was taken prisoner and a treaty of peace was effected. 

The Republic of Texas. — But Mexico did not acknowledge 
the independence of Texas, and made unsuccessful efforts 
afterward to conquer the state. The Texans set up a repub- 

1 Two American women, a child of each, a Mexican woman and a negro servant 
escaped the massacre. 

2 The blood of the Texans butchered in the Alamo and at Goliad cried out for 
vengeance, but prisoners were treated in a humane manner. Santa Anna, in due 
time, was released and later served as a Mexican officer in the war between Mexico 
and the United States. 



304 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

lican government modeled after that of the United States. The 
United States and England and France acknowledged her 
independence. During the nine years of her existence as an 
independent republic, Texas had the following presidents: (i) 
David G. Burnet (provisional); (2) Sam Houston; (3) M. B. 
Lamar; (4) Sam Houston; (5) Anson Jones. Henry Smith 
acted as provisional governor during the earlier part of the 
revolution. 

The State of Texas. — But it was the desire of the Texans 
to be annexed to the United States, and advances looking 
toward this union had been made in Jackson's, Van Buren's, 
and Tyler's administrations. The United States, however, 
hung back ; so long as Mexico regarded Texas as only a 
revolted province, yet to be brought back to allegiance, any 
interference on the part of our country could but bring on 
a war with Mexico. But additions to the population of Texas 
from the United States continued, and the feeling in favor 
of annexation grew stronger. President Tyler was in favor 
of annexation and encouraged the Texans to urge their 
propositions. Finally, the question became a national issue. 
Against the project, it was urged that Texas would add a vast 
territory to the slave section of our country ; that we would in- 
volve ourselves in a war with Mexico by annexing her revolted 
province ; and that we had no moral right to Texas until 
Mexico renounced her claims. On the other hand, it was held 
that the balance between the free and the slave territory ought 
to be preserved by this annexation ; that the union would give 
us a vast fertile tract to add to our domain ; ^ and that Texas 
had fairly earned her independence, which independence 
Mexico never would formally recognize if left to herself. The 

1 Texas contains more than 262,000 square miles of territory. It is larger than 
all the New England and Middle Atlantic States together. Daniel Webster said it 
was so large a bird could not fly over it in a week. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



305 



objections came chiefly from the North. The Southern peo- 
ple were in favor of annexation. Polk, the candidate put for- 
ward for the presidency by the Democrats, was in favor of 
annexation. Clay, the Whig candidate, was opposed to it. 
Polk was elected and his success was due largely to his posi- 
tion on this matter. As soon as the result of the election was 




The Alamo, San Antonio. 

known, a bill annexing Texas was brought up in Congress, 
was passed, and was signed by President Tyler just three days 
before the expiration of his term. 

462. Florida and Iowa Admitted. — During the last year 
of this administration. Congress admitted Florida and Iowa to 
the Union as states : but Iowa did not comply with the terms 
and become a state till a year later. 



463. Summary. — President Harrison died after having served but a 
month, and John Tyler, vice-president, became president. The sub-treas- 
ury bill of Van Buren's administration was repealed. The Whig party, 
which had elected Tyler, passed bills through Congress establishing a new 
national bank. The president vetoed the bills. Congress would not adopt 
the plan proposed by the president. The funds were governed only by the 
president's judgment and care. The Ashburton Treaty settled the north- 



306 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

ern boundary of the United States as far west as the Rocky Mountains. 
The forty-ninth parallel was made the dividing line. The tariff rate was 
raised. The Dorr Rebellion in Rhode Island grew out of the desire of the 
people for universal suffrage. The old charter was set aside and suffrage 
was granted as in other states. A telegraph line was built between Wash- 
ington and Baltimore and the first message was sent in 1844. Texas, 
a Mexican province, had been colonized from our Southern states. The 
colonists revolted and in 1836 gained their independence. The people of 
Texas wished to annex their republic to the United States. In the presi- 
dential election, Polk, who was in favor of annexation, defeated Clay, who 
was opposed to it. Texas was annexed three days before Tyler's term 
expired. Florida and Iowa were admitted during the last year (1845), but 
Iowa did not become a state till one year later. 

464. Thought Questions. — Contrast Tyler's popularity before and 
after his inauguration as president. Account for the change. Mention 
the iniportant tariff bills passed in the last three administrations. How 
did the acquisition of Texas differ from the previous acquisitions of terri- 
tory ? What European first traveled through Texas ? By whom was the 
first attempt at settlement made ? By what different nations has Texas 
been claimed? What do you consider the most important event in this 
administration ? 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



307 



Polk's Administration. 
One Term: 1845-1849. 

465, Services and Character of the New President. — 

James K. Polk was born in North Carolina, in 1795, and lived 
to the age of fifty-four ; through most of his life, his home was 
in Tennessee, to which state the family had removed in his 
boyhood. He became a member of the Tennessee Legislature 
at the age of 28. He was a 
friend of Andrew Jackson, 
and assisted in electing this 
illustrious Tennesseean to 
the United States Senate. 
He became a congressman, 
and had fourteen years' con- 
secutive service. He w^as 
twice elected speaker of the 
House. After retiring from 
Congress, he was elected 
governor of his state. He 
had not been publicly an- 
nounced as a candidate for 
the presidency when the Democratic convention met in 1844, 
but none of the prominent candidates could secure the neces- 
sary two-thirds vote, so Mr. Polk was put forward by his 
friends as a compromise candidate and was nominated. Polk 
was a man of ability, careful and painstaking in investigation, 
prompt and decided in execution. In his inaugural, he named 
four measures which he wished to signalize his administration.^ 
He accomplished all of them. 

1 " There are four great measures which are to be the measures of my administra- 
tion : One, a reduction of the tariff ; another, the independent treasury; a third, the 
settlement of the Oregon boundary question, and lastly, the acquisition of Califor- 
nia." — Schouler^s History of the United States, Vol. IV, p, 498. 




James K. Polk. 



3o8 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 




466. The Oregon Boundary. — The convention which nomi- 
nated Polk proclaimed as one of the policies of the party the 
"re-occupation of Oregon." The northwestern boundary of 
the United States had never been determined.^ The United 

States insisted that the line 
should run at 54° 40' north 
latitude, the southern extrem- 
ity of Alaska, while Great 
Britain contended that the 
Columbia River, in latitude 
46°, was the proper bound- 
ary. There had already been 
much discussion of the mat- 
ter; during Polk's adminis- 
tration negotiations were 
finally concluded by an agreement that the parallel of 49° should 
mark the boundary of the United States west of the mountains 
as it did on the east side (§ 456). This treaty (1846) was the 
final step in our acquisition of Oregon. These negotiations 
bring to mind the history of Oregon — a history instructive in 
the methods of Western exploration and settlement. 

467. The Oregon Trail. — In 1792, Robert Gray, command- 
ing a trading-vessel fitted out by some enterprising merchants 
of Boston, discovered the mouth of a river on our western 
coast and sailed up its course fourteen miles. He named the 
river " Columbia," which was the name of the ship he com- 
manded.^ During the last months of 1805, Lewis and Clark 
(§376) explored the Columbia from its sources in the mountains 

1 A treaty made in 1818 between Great Britain and the United States provided 
for the joint occupation by the two powers of the region between the Russian terri- 
tory of Alaska and the Spanish territory of California. 

2 The owners of the Columbia intended that she should visit our western coast, 
buy a cargo of furs from the Indians and traders, then sail across to China and 
exchange the furs for tea and return to Boston. After an absence of three years, 
the Cohimhia returned to Boston having made the voyage as planned. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM." 



309 



to its mouth in the Pacific. In 1808, the Missouri Fur Company 
of St. Louis was organized for the purpose of opening up trade 
with this Columbia River region. An agent sent into this 
country established a trading post, Fort Henry, on the Lewis 
River. Mr. John Jacob Astor, a rich merchant of New York 
City, became interested in this Northwestern territory and put 
in operation a liberal plan for establishing trading posts on the 




Astoria in 1813. 

Columbia. In t8io, he sent a company of men around by 
Cape Horn to the mouth of the river and another company 
from St. Louis, overland, to uni-te with the first. The two com- 
panies, uniting in 1 8 1 2, formed a settlement which, in honor of the 
patron of the undertaking, they called Astoria.^ A third com- 
pany sent out from New York on shipboard reached Astoria in 
the latter part of the same year (18 12). But the English coveted 
this same region and expeditions from Canada sought to occupy 
the country. A bitter competition sprang up between the settlers 
from the United States and those from Canada. When the 

^ See Irving's *' Astoria." 



310 • HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

news of the War of 1812 reached this remote region, the 
officers of the Astor company sold their interests to the Eng- 
lish company and retired from the field. After peace was de- 
clared, though there was no organized movement, an unnoticed 
immigration of adventurous trappers and settlers to the Oregon 
region began and continued for years ; so that gradually trading 
from this region was resumed and settlement of it proceeded.^ 
In 1835, Marcus Whitman went with a small party of mission- 
aries to the Columbia region. In the next year, Whitman went 
through to Fort Boise, on the Lewis River, in a wagon, demon- 
strating the possibility of wagon-train emigration to the Oregon 
country. In 1840, the settlers in Oregon numbered about one 
hundred and fifty. ^ The agents of the English fur companies 
did everything in their power to prevent the settlement of the 
region from the United States. But finding that settlement 
continued nevertheless, they determined to meet settlement 
from the United States with settlement from Canada. Arrange- 
ments were made to bring in a body of emigrants from Canada. 
Dr. Whitman, hearing of this proposed invasion, and knowing 
that the plan, if intelligently executed, would take Oregon from 
the United States, resolved to save the region for which he had 
done so much. On horseback, he returned to St. Louis and 
then proceeded to Washington. The Ashburton treaty (§ 456) 
had just been concluded and the boundary of Oregon was still 
left open. Dr. Whitman made up a train of two hundred wagons 
and led it to Oregon. When Polk became president in 1845, 
our people had such a hold on this region that the cry was 
"fifty-four forty or fight." The final settlement of the boundary 
(1846) at 49° threw the Columbia River well within our territory. 

1 In 1S32, Captain Bonneville led a wagon train across the Wind River Moun- 
tains into the Green River Valley. See Irving's " Captain Bonneville." In the same 
year, Nathaniel J. Wyeth led a party from New England to Fort Vancouver. Wyeth 
afterward led a second and larger expedition to the same region and began settle- 
ment in the Willamette Valley. See " Nathaniel J. Wyeth and the Struggle for Ore- 
gon " in Harper's Magazbte for November, 1892. 

2 Drake, " The Making of the Great West." 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 3II 

tVAI^ WITH MEXICO. 

468. The Annexation of Texas : the Beginning of the 
War with Mexico. — On June 23, 184.5, Texas accepted the 
terms of admission fixed by the national Congress the 
previous March, and became one of the states. The Texans 
claimed the Rio Grande as the western boundary of their new 
state, while the Mexicans insisted that the Nueces River was the 
northeastern boundary of Mexico. The strip between the two 
rivers was about a hundred miles across and contained some 
valuable territory. The United States upheld Texas in claim- 
ing the Rio Grande boundary and prepared to help maintain it. 
General Zachary Taylor, with a force of about five thousand 
men, was directed to occupy and hold the disputed territory. 
He established a depot of supplies at Point Isabel, on the Gulf, 
and then, with a part of his men, marched a few miles up the 
Texas side of the Rio Grande and built Fort Brown opposite 
Matamoras. Detachments from the Mexican army, concen- 
trated at Matamoras, crossed the Rio Grande both above and 
below Fort Brown. On April 23, 1846, the detachment above 
the fort fell in with a company of our troops, killed and 
wounded sixteen of our countrymen, and captured the re- 
mainder of the party. The message which the president sent 
to Congress on May 11, 1846, stated that: "War exists, and 
notwithstanding all our efforts to avoid it, exists by the act of 
Mexico herself." Congress at once declared war, and voted 
money and called for volunteers to carry on the campaign. 

469. The First Battles : Palo Alto ; Resaca de la Palma. 

— Taylor prepared to strengthen his position at Fort Brown. 
Fearing that the Mexicans would cut him off from Point Isabel, 
his base of supplies, he fell back with the body of his troops to 
strengthen the defenses of this depot on the Gulf. The Mexi- 
cans in Matamoras, having been witnesses of this movement to 
the rear, mistook its cause and sent a large force across the 



312 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



river to capture Fort Brown, which had been left with a garri- 
son of about three hundred men. Taylor completed his work 
as rapidly as possible and with a force of two thousand men 
began his return to Fort Brown. When 
he reached Palo Alto, near the fort, his 
forces found themselves suddenly con- 
fronted by six thousand Mexicans pre- 
pared to give battle. The engagement 
that followed was a victory for the 
Americans. The Mexicans fell back. 
The next day (May 9), at Resaca de la 
Palma, within three miles of Fort Brown, 
the Mexicans again intercepted the Americans and forced an 
engagement. The Mexican army was completely routed, and 
this time, in its retreat, did not stop till it was safely across the 
river and under the protection of the guns of Matamoras. 




470. Invasion of Mexico : Capture of Monterey ; Battle 
of Buena Vista. — A few days after these battles on Texas 
soil, General Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and captured 
Matamoras. He then pushed forward towards the interior of 
Mexico. He was delayed about four months waiting for reen- 
forcements and necessary provisions. With an army of 6600 
men, he began the siege, September 21, of the strongly fortified 
town of Monterey, which was defended by 12,000 Mexican 
troops. After three days of hard fighting, the town, with its 
military stores, was captured and the Mexicans were allowed 
to evacuate. The capture of Monterey was a great victory, 
because it was won against such odds both of numbers and 
position. 

Taylor's next engagement was at Buena Vista. General 
Scott, who had been sent to Mexico as commander-in-chief of 
our forces, and who meant to push forward rapidly from the 
coast into the heart of the country, had detached most of 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



313 



Taylor's troops to his own support in the coming campaign. 
Santa Anna, who was now the commander of the Mexican 
forces, had already gathered an army of 20,000 men for the 
purpose of attacking Taylor. Hearing, now, .of the removal 
of the main part of Taylor's army to another part of the 
country to aid General Scott, this shrewd Mexican captain 
moved forward rapidly with the intention of annihilating the 
remnant of General Taylor's forces. The opposing armies 
(20,000 Mexicans, about 7500 Americans) met at a pass in the 
mountains near Buena Vista (February 27, 1847), and after a 
day's desperate fighting the Mexicans were defeated and driven 
from the field. 



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QT° 



471. General Scott's Campaign. — As has been said, it was 
General Scott's purpose to march on to the heart of the 
enemy's country. But he had to begin at the coast. On the 
9th of March, with his own troops and the reenforcements from 
Taylor's army (numbering 12,000 men in all) he began the 
siege of Vera Cruz. The 
city surrendered on the 
27 th of the same month. 

The army now began 
its march towards the capi- 
tal. Santa Anna, with a 
large force, took up a posi- 
tion in the rocky pass of 
Cerro Gordo, in the path of our army, prepared to resist its 
further progress. The Mexicans were routed from their posi- 
tion, three thousand of them were taken prisoners, and military 
stores sufficient to equip an army were captured (April 18, 
1847). On the march forward there were many minor engage- 
ments. The Mexicans fortified every strong position along the 
route our army must take. But one by one these positions 
were carried, and the advanced Mexican troops were rapidly 







10 30 £0 



314 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

forced back on the city. On September 14, 1847, the capital 
itself was taken and the American flag waved triumphantly over 
the city of the Montezumas. 

The treaty which followed involved even more territory than 
that of Texas, and some account of the simultaneous movement 
of the West must be given. 

472. The Acquisition of California. — " California was, in 
1846, an outlying and neglected Mexican province." ^ It was 
believed in the United States that England coveted this Mexi- 
can province. It is certain that the authorities of the United 
States hoped to annex it to our own country and were willing 
to aid in bringing about the thing they wished. Captain John 
C. Fremont, who had twice before led exploring expedi- 
tions across the Rocky Mountains, reached California with 
a third party, January, 1846. It was undoubtedly Captain Fre- 
mont's purpose to do what he could towards acquiring Califor 
nia.^ The tie between the province and the parent country 
was very weak; England, France, and our own country were 
jealously and covetously watching the course of events, antici- 
pating dismemberment ; as California was in the line of our 
national development, and as there were already many of our 
countrymen settled in the northern part, it was felt that we had 
the best chance and the best right. Captain Fremont con- 

^ Royce, " California." Following this sentence, is an excellent description of Cali 
fornia at that time : we take space to give a brief passage from it. " Its missions, 
once prosperous, had had their estates in large part secularized during the latter 
years, had fallen into decay, were now helpless and sometimes in ruins. The mission 
Indians had in large part disappeared. The Church was no longer a power. The 
white population was made up principally of Spanish and Mexican colonists, whose 
chief industry was raising cattle for the hides and tallow, and whose private lives 
were free, careless, and on the whole, as this world goes, moderately charming and 
innocent." 

2 There had been much controversy as to the extent of Captain Fremont's author- 
ity and instructions from the government ; but there can be no doubt at all as to his 
own intention, which was to take the shortest possible road to the acquisition of the- 
province. — See Royce and H. H. Bancroft. 



GROWTH OF SECXrONAL ANTAGONISM. 



315 




Old Sutter's Fort. 



cerned himself only about the chance. Soon after the captain 
encamped in the vicinity of the American settlers in the Sutter's 
Fort region, they began to hear alarming rumors of a move- 
ment on the part of the 
Mexican government to 
expel them from Califor- 
nian territory. Anticipat- 
ing this hostile movement 
against them, the set- 
tlers organized a force, 
marched over to the mili- 
tary post of Sonoma, cap- 
tured it, sent some of its officers as prisoners to Sutter's Fort, 
raised a flag on which the figure of a bear had been rudely drawn 
with berry juice, and declared a free and independent republic 
(June 14, 1846). Captain Fremont at once became the leader 
of the Bear Flag Revolutionists. 
The towns and posts around So- 
noma were taken almost without a 
struggle. But at this time, news of 
the United States' declaration of [^^ 
war against Mexico reached the 
western coast, and on July 7, Com- | 
modore Sloat, whose ships had been 
hovering along the coast, took pos- 
session of Monterey (a short dis- 
tance below San Francisco) and raised the flag of the United 
States. Northern California, now under the control of Fremont, 
took down the Bear flag and raised the flag of the United States. 
The conquest of California was speedily and easily accomplished. 




473. New Mexico Taken. — After war was declared against 
Mexico, General Kearney was sent with a force to make a con- 
quest of New Mexico. He did not meet with much opposition. 



3l6 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

On August 1 8, 1846, our flag was raised over Santa Fe, and 
New Mexico was declared annexed to the United States. 

474. The Treaty ; New State. — The treaty which followed 
(in February, 1S4S) the fall of Mexico City gave us Texas, 
California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of New Mexico, 
Colorado, and Wyoming, nearly a million square miles of terri- 
tory. In return, the United States agreed to pay Mexico 
$15,000,000, and to pay claims of our citizens against Mexico 
to the amount of $3,250,000. 

In 1848, Wisconsin, the fifth and last state from the North- 
west Territory', was admitted as a state. 

475. Gold in California. — There were many things — a 
fertile soil, a mild and equable climate, a commanding position 
upon the western coast — which made the United States wish 
for California. But between the time of its conquest and the 
signing of the treaty with Mexico — after we had forcibly taken 
California, but before Mexico had formally relinquished it — 
gold was discovered on the rivers, and it was soon apparent that 
California was a prize rich beyond our most sanguine expecta- 
tions. In January, 184S, a workman in deepening a mill-race 
with a flood of water, saw washed upon the banks of the seeth- 
ing stream little shining particles that he thought might be 
gold. A quantity of the metal, tested in a rude way by Captain 
Sutter, the owner of the mill, bore the test so well that all 
doubts were dismissed. Though an attempt was made to keep 
the discovery a secret, it was revealed in some way and the 
news spread like wildfire. The first prospectors found gold in 
many other places in the same region. The native population 
abandoned all other pursuits for gold-digging ; stores were 
locked up, shops were closed, fields were left half-plowed, 
crops remained unharvested. As the news spread, the popula- 
tion of the whole western coast, Indians, Chinese, Mexicans, 
and Americans, flocked to the scene of the discovery. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 317 

476. The Gold Fever of 1849. — It was not till late in 1848 
that the news reached the eastern states. But when it did 
reach there, and when authentic reports from its California 
representatives were published by the government, excitement 
ran as high here as on the western coast. Great numbers of 
people began preparations to go to California in the spring. 
There were three routes from the East to this El Dorado of the 
West : one, the longest, around Cape Horn ; another, to the 
Isthmus of Panama, across it, and up the western coast; the 
third, overland across the continent. Soon, along all these 
routes, there were streams of sanguine pilgrims, brave to dare 
any dangers in the search for the golden fleece. At the close 
of the year (1849), there were more than one hundred thousand 
people in California. San Francisco had grown — without rail- 
roads — from a village of two thousand people to a city of 
twenty thousand, and Sacramento from a group of four houses 
to a town of ten thousand inhabitants. Some of these adven- 
turous pioneers, "forty-niners," as they were called, won fabu- 
lous fortunes; many, modest ones; and the procession they 
began marched on for several years after this. 

477. Summary. — The northern boundary of Oregon was fixed at the 
forty-ninth parallel. Texas and Mexico had a dispute over the western 
boundary of Texas. The United States sent troops to help maintain the 
claim of Texas. War followed {1S46-184S). The Americans were victori- 
ous in all the battles and eventually captured the capital, Mexico City. 
The treaty which followed gave us Texas, California, Nevada, Utah, 
Arizona, Xew Mexico, and part of Colorado. California and New Mexico 
were won by separate campaigns ; John C. Fremont led the expedition to 
California, General Kearney that to New Mexico. Gold was discovered in 
California in 1S4S. Rapid immigration followed. Wisconsin was admitted. 

478. Thought Questions. — Name the men who did the most toward 
the acquisition of Oregon by the United States. How do you account for 
the failure of the Mexican troops to win a single battle in the war with the 
United States? Contrast the success of our invasion of Mexico with the 
failure of our invasion of Canada. Give reason for the difference. Whom 
do you consider the greatest general in the Mexican war? Show how 
Jefferson's purchase of Louisiana led to the war with Mexico. 



18 



HISTORY OF OUR COCXTRV 



Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations. 



.V 



^^^'^ 



One Term : 1S49-1S53. 

479. Services and Characters of the Presidents. — Zachary 

Taylor was born in Virginia (17S4). but his father removed to 
Kentucky and took up residence there while Zachary was yet 
an infant. The boy grew up under the pioneer conditions of 

this western state. In his 
youth he had very little for- 
mal education and saw little 
of the world. His father 
had been a soldier in the 
Revolutionary army and an 
older brother was an officer 
in the United States army. 
At the age of twenty-four 
he entered the army him- 
self, became a lieutenant 
and afterward a captain. 
In the War of 18 12, he 
distinguished himself in the 
defense of one of the out- 
posts in Indiana. In the 
decisive battle against Black Hawk and his warriors (§ 438) 
Taylor commanded the troops of the regular army. His great- 
est early distinction was won by his wonderful march of a 
hundred and fifty miles into the everglades of Florida in the 
pursuit of the Seminoles. The Indians who had eluded so 
many officers did not escape him. He penetrated to their 
chief village and defeated them in a bloody battle. After 
a year's prosecution of the war in different parts of this Florida 
wilderness, the chiefs were forced to surrender ; and with their 
people, they were removed across the Mississippi. An account 




Zachary Taylor. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



19 



of the otficer's brilliant work in the Mexican War has already 
been given. He was nominated for president by the Whig party. 

Though almost wholly uneducated, the president had learned 
in a stern, though narrow, school of experience. He was 
frank, sincere, and in- 
corruptible, brave and 
determined. He gained 
the presidency because 
of his military reputa- 
tion ; but he won the 
respect of the nation as 
the highest civil officer 
of the land. He died 
in July, 1S50, after one 
year's service as presi- 
dent, and the vice-presi- 
dent succeeded to the 
presidency. 

Millard Fillmore was 
born in New York in 

iSoo. He began the practice of law soon after reaching his 
majority. After serving a few terms in the state Legislature, 
he was elected to Congress in 1S30, and was reelected three 
times. He was comptroller of his state when he was nomi- 
nated for the vice-presidency. 




Millard Fillmore. 



480. The Problem of the Administration. — The problem 
of this administration was the proper organization of the vast 
territory acquired from Mexico during the previous administra- 
tion. At first, Congress failed to make any provision for the 
government of California, and for nearly two years, the prov- 
ince rested under the control of military officers appointed 
before the treaty was signed. But President Taylor wished to 
have both California and New Mexico become organic parts of 



320 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the Union as soon as possible. He sent agents to both territo- 
ries for the purpose of urging the people to ask for admission, 
and of advising them as to the best method to reach this end. 
In California, a constitutional convention was called by the 
military governor. The constitution which it framed was 
adopted almost unanimously by the people (November 13, 
1849), and state officers were elected. Under this organiza- 
tion and this constitution, the territory asked for admission as 
a state. It sent congressmen and senators to Washington. A 
clause in its constitution, prohibiting slavery, caused trouble 
and delay. The old controversy as to whether new territory 
should enter the Union " free " or " slave " arose agrain with 
greater intensity and bitterness. 



'to' 



481. The Conflicting Opinions. — The extreme party at the 
North insisted that slavery should be prohibited in all the terri- 
tory acquired from Mexico.^ As heretofore, some of the South- 
ern leaders urged that the territories should decide for them- 
selves whether they should enter the Union as " slave " or 
"free " states. Others wanted the line of the Missouri Com- 
promise drawn to the Pacific. 

482. The Compromise of 1850. — Henry Clay, "The Great 
Peace-Maker," brought forward in January a compromise 
measure, which, because of the many interests it included, was 
called the Omnibus Bill. These were its provisions: (i) The 
speedy admission of California as a free state; (2) Territorial 
governments in New Mexico and Utah without any restrictions 
upon slavery ; (3) The payment to Texas of ten million dollars 
for her claim to a part of the territory of New Mexico ; (4) 
Slavery was not to be abolished in the District of Columbia 
without the consent of Maryland, but the slave trade therein 

1 The Wilmot Proviso, introduced in Congress during the progress of the war, 
sought to prohibit, beforehand, the introduction of slavery into any of the territory 
that might be acquired. It did not become a law. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 321 

was prohibited; (5) A more effective fugitive slave-law; (6) 
Denial to Congress of all power to interfere with the slave trade 
between slave-holding states.^ These provisions were all passed 
as separate bills. The debate extended over seven months and 
was carried on by men who made national reputations in the 
discussion and by others, already famous, who remain our 
country's greatest orators. Webster, Clay, and Calhoun, the 
great statesmen who had been powerful in shaping the policy 
of our government for a quarter of a century, were in their old 
age again in their places in the Senate ; and all of them pre- 
sented eloquent arguments and all of them supported the gen- 
eral provisions of the bill.- Among others who participated in 
the debate were Jefferson Davis, who took positive and aggres- 
sive Southern ground, and William H. Seward, of New York, 
an impassioned anti-slavery orator. 

483. The Fugitive-Slave Agitation. — The Fugitive-Slave 
Law, which was a part of the compromise, provided that run- 
away slaves might be claimed by their owners in any territory : 
it directed federal officers to aid the master in securing fugi- 
tives ; it allowed the master to present proofs of ownership and 
identity, but denied the slave the right to testify.^ In the 
Northern states the arrest of fugitive slaves, under this law, 
was resisted. One slave in Syracuse and another in' Boston 

^ " To please the North, CaUfornia was to be admitted, and the slave depots here 
in the District were to be broken up. To please the slave states a stringent fugitive- 
slave act was to be passed and slavery was to have a chance to get into the new terri- 
tories. The support of the senators and representatives from Texas was to be gained 
by a liberal adjustment of boundary and by the assumption of a large portion of their 
state debt." — Salmon P. Chase, Senate, February 3, 1S54. 

2 Mr. Calhoun was too feeble to deliver his speech on this bill, but he sat in the 
Senate while it was read by a friend. This was Calhoun's last appearance in the 
Senate. He died March 31, 1850. Clay and Webster died two years later; Clay, 
June 28, 1852 ; Webster, October 24, 1852. 

3 Webster had contended for trial by jury in the question of ownership and iden- 
tity. He wished to provide against the fraudulent capture of negroes by adventurers. 
But no case of a fraudulent claim of this kind was ever discovered. 



322 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

were taken from officers by mob force and secretly hurried out 
of the country. Several Northern states passed Personal Liber- 
ty Bills "nullifying" the fugitive-slave law. The Abolitionists 
established routes and stations from the South to Canada by 
means of which " underground railways," as they were called, 
slaves were aided to escape from the United States. Webster, 
Choate, and many of the Northern statesmen defended the law 
or advocated compliance with it. Seward and the Abolitionists 
asserted that the obligation to conscience was higher than the 
obligation to the law of the land. 

484. Railroad Development. — In the year 185 1, the Erie 
Railroad, the longest in the country at the time (470 miles), 
was formally opened. The president, and several members of 
his cabinet, rode the full length of the track and joined in the 
jubilee exercises by speaking at the larger towns. Before the 
close of the administration, 10,087 miles of road had been con- 
structed. In March, 1853, Congress ordered an exploration at 
public expense to ascertain the best route for a railroad to the 
Pacific Ocean. 

485. Summary. — President Taylor died after a little more than a 
year's service, and Vice-President Fillmore succeeded to the presidency. 
California adopted a constitution in 1S49 ^"d asked for admission to the 
Union. Controversy arose as to whether it should be admitted as "free " 
or " slave " territory. Henry Clay offered the Omnibus Bill {1850) as a 
compromise measure. California was admitted as a free state ; New 
Mexico and Utah were to have territorial governments without restrictions 
as to slavery. A new and severe fugitive-slave bill aroused great opposi- 
tion at the North. Secret routes and stations (nicknamed " underground 
railways ") were arranged to aid the flight of runaway slaves. Railroads de- 
veloped rapidly: the administration closed with 10,000 miles of track and 
an order for a survey for a route to the Pacific Ocean. 

486. Thought Questions. — What reference to fugitive slaves was con- 
tained in the provisions of the New England Confederation ? Tn the 
Ordinance of 1787? In the Constitution of the United States? What 
was the most important event of this administration f 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



323 



Pierce's Administration. 



One Term : 1853-1857. 

487. Services and Character of the New President. — 

Franklin Pierce (born in New Hampshire in 1804) was the son 
of a distinguished family and had excellent early advantages of 
education and association. At twenty-five, he entered the state 
Legislature; at twenty-nine, the House of Representatives; and 
at thirty-three, the United 
States Senate. After serv- 
ing five years in the Senate, 
he resigned his seat and 
resumed the practice of law 
at Concord, New Hamp- 
shire. He declined to go 
into President Polk's cab- 
inet as attorney- general. 
He also refused to be con- 
sidered for the Democratic 
nomination for governor of 
his state. When the Mexi- 
can War came up, he en- 
listed as a volunteer. He 
was quickly advanced to the rank of brigadier-general ; and in 
General Scott's march to the Mexican capital he rendered signal 
service. He was nominated for the presidency by the Demo- 
cratic party in 1852, and was elected over General Scott, who 
was the Whig candidate. He was a man of aggressive temper, 
was true to his friends and to his party, and was fearless and 
persevering in the execution of his policies. 

488. Slavery : The Kansas and Nebraska Bill. — Not 

all of the pioneers who started for the Pacific coast reached the 
Californian El Dorado. Some stopped on the way, fearing to 




Franklin Pierce. 



324 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

risk the dangerous journey across the mountains. The great 
plain west of the Missouri was settled by these travelers who 
found it impossible to reach the extreme west. 

Senator Douglas of Illinois, chairman of the committee on 
territories, had become interested in this " Platte Country " ^ 
and proposed to organize it into territories. His bill, intro- 
duced in January, 1854,- divided this region into two parts, the 
northern part called Nebraska, and the southern part Kansas. 
Both of the proposed territories lay within the limits of the 
Louisiana purchase and north of 36° 30' and were therefore, 
under the provisions of the Missouri Compromise, free terri- 
tory. The Kansas-Nebraska bill, however, proposed to set 
aside this part of the Missouri Compromise and to leave the 
people of the territory to say, when they asked for admission 
as a state, whether they would permit slavery. The bill was 
strongly opposed by those who were fighting slavery. It was 
condemned as a flagrant violation of the Missouri Compromise, 
which, by its own terms, was to last forever. Senator Douglas 
contended that the great compromise Omnibus Bill of 1850 
virtually repealed the Missouri Compromise by setting forth 
the principle that Congress should not interfere with new terri- 
tory by legislating either freedom or slavery into it, and by de- 
claring the people's right to decide about slavery in their own 
domain.^ For months, the bill was the subject of debate in 

1 This great plain was called the " Platte Country" from the Platte River, which 
was its chief physical feature. 

2 On January 4, 1854, Senator Douglas introduced a bill for the organization of 
Nebraska Territory. This bill provided that the people, by their own constitution, 
should decide whether slavery should be permitted within the limits of the state. In 
other words, the existence of slavery or of freedom within Nebraska was not to be 
considered by Congress when the territory applied for admission as a state. On 
January 23, Senator Douglas offered the bill described above as a substitute for the 
bill of January 4. The second bill expressly repealed that part of the Missouri Com- 
promise (Section S) which the first bill was said to violate indirectly. 

3 The Omnibus Bill provided that New Mexico and Utah should be admitted 
without any restrictions as to slavery. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM, 32$ 

Congress. It became a national issue, and was the subject of 
bitter controversy in the newspapers and on the stump. It was 
passed in May. It created two new territories. It expressly 
repealed that part of the Missouri Compromise which said that 
the territory north of 36° 30' should be forever free. The 
authority for deciding upon slavery was taken from Congress 
and was given to the people of the territories.^ 

489. The Struggle for Kansas. — Between the North and 
the South, a struggle began for supremacy in Kansas. Indeed, 
in the North, preparations to colonize Kansas with free settlers 
began while the bill was pending. In April, 1854, the Massa- 
chusetts Legislature granted a charter to " The Massachusetts 
Emigrant Aid Society" which, with a capital stock of five 
million dollars, prepared to organize a far-reaching system of 
Kansas emigration.- But this first attempt at colonization was 
not very successful. The next year, a second charter was 
granted by the Massachusetts Legislature, this time to the 
" New England Emigrant Society," which society was duly or- 
ganized, obtained contributions to the amount of $140,000, and 
was more successful than the first one had been. In July, 
1854, however, through the influence and direct aid of the 
original Massachusetts Company, a body of Massachusetts 
emigrants set out on their way to Kansas. The news of the 
journey to the West, heralded far and wide in the press, proved 
a wonderful stimulus in inducing others to aid in getting con- 
trol of the territory ; so that by the end of the year, Kansas 
had a population of several thousand "sons of freedom." The 
South made no organized attempt at colonization, but it looked 
on the Northern movement with a jealous eye. The slave 

^ The settlers in this Western country were often called " Squatters," and their 
right to decide upon slavery was often spoken of as " Squatter Sovereignty." 

2 This charter was the result of the work of Eli Thaver, who was a pioneer 
in Kansas colonization from the North. He was heartily encouraged and sup- 
ported by such men as Charles Francis Adams, Edward Everett Hale, and Horace 
Greelev. 



326 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

holders along the borders of Missouri prepared their own plan 
for saving Kansas to the South : they proposed to move over 
into Kansas at the proper time and meet the New England 
Free-Soilers at the polls. The New England societies had 
armed their colonists, and the Missouri '* Borderers " had guns 
and knew how to use them. Under such conditions, contests, 
riots, and bloodshed were inevitable. In the election of a ter- 
ritorial delegate to Congress, the slave-holders were successful. 
The first territorial Legislature was in favor of slavery. But the 
free-state settlers claimed that this first Legislature was elected 
by fraudulent \ otes of '• Border Ruffians " from Missouri. So 
the free-state colonists elected a Legislature of their own and 
prepared to form a code of laws. The president recognized 
the slavery Legislature as the legal one and sent federal troops 
to suppress any violence or rebellion. There was so much 
fighting between the factions that the territory came to be 
known as '' Bleeding Kansas.*' 

490. The Republican Party. — People who were opposed 
to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, or to slaver}-, joined together in 
the next election to elect congressmen who were opposed to 
slaver}' and to the principles of this act. These voters were at 
first spoken of as the "Anti-Nebraska Men." They elected a 
majority of the next House of Representatives. They after- 
wards took the name of the Republican party.^ At the time, 
the organization was strictly a Northern and an anti-slavery 
party. Its members came from Northern Democrats, Northern 
Whigs, Free-Soilers, and the American party.^ This was the 
origin of the Republican party of to-day. 

■^ The Democrats called the Republicans " Black Republicans " because they 
sought to free the negro. 

- A secret political organization was formed about 1S52. Because outsiders could 
learn nothing of its purposes, it was called the Know-Nothing party. It took the 
name of the American party and its object became known. Its design was to hinder 
or prevent the naturalization of foreigners (see Constitution) and to vote only for 
American candidates for office. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 32/ 

491. The World's Fair. — In July, 1S53, America's first 
World's Fair was opened at New York City. President Pierce 
attended the exercises and spoke to a vast audience. The Old 
World, however, did not extend the patronage that the New 
World had expected, and financially the fair was a failure. 
But it demonstrated that Americans were the greatest of all 
inventors, and that in labor-saving machinery, and notably agri- 
cultural implements, America led the world. 

492. The Treaty with Japan; Gadsden Purchase. — In 
the same year (1853), Commodore Perry with a fleet of steam- 
ships was allowed to enter one of the ports of Japan. The 
Japanese had never seen a steamship, and they were very 
suspicious of Americans ; but, on acquaintance, they liked our 
ships and our representatives so well that they made a treaty 
with the United States opening the way to commerce between 
the nations. Since that time, the Japanese have advanced 
rapidly in civilization, and have borne the most cordial relations 
with our country. 

There was much controversy over the southern boundary of 
our new acquisitions in the Southwest. In 1853 we paid 
Mexico $10,000,000 for 45,000 square miles lying south of the 
Gila River, fixing the exact boundary of the tract by treaty. 
This tract is called the Gadsden Purchase, from General 
Gadsden of South Carolina, who negotiated the purchase. 

493. Summary, — The Kansas-Nebraska bill, organizing the territories 
of Kansas and Nebraska, was passed (May, 1854). By its provisions, the 
people of the territory were to decide on slavery. A fierce struggle began 
between the anti-slavery and the slavery people for the possession of Kan- 
sas. The preliminary victories were for those who favored slavery. The 
Republican party, a party opposed to slavery, grew out of the opposition to 
the Kansas-Nebraska bill. Our first World's Fair was held in New York 
in 1S53. A treaty with Japan, made in 1853, established a friendly relation 
with this country. The Gadsden Purchase was effected. 

494. Thought Questions. — Name the states whose admission aroused 
the slavery controversy. What two bills were violations of the " Missouri 
Compromise " ? What was the most important event of Pierce's adminis- 
tration ? Why do you so consider it ? 



^ -»<? 
o--^ 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY, 



Buchaxan"s Administratiox. 



One Term: 1S57-1S61. 

495. Services and Character of the New President. — 
James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was born in 1791. He edu- 
cated himself for the law. Prior to his entrance into national 
politics he served 

his state as a mem- 
ber of the Pennsyl- 
vania House of 
Representatives. 
From 1S20 to 1S31, 
he was a represen- 
tative in the Con- 
gress of the United 
States. He was 
then sent as minis- 
ter to Russia. For 
eleven years (^iS34 
to 1S45') he was a 
United States sen- 
ator. During Polk's 
administration he 
was secretarv of state. At the time he was nominated for the 
presidency he was minister to England. Throughout his entire 
political career he was a Democrat. He was a man of high 
character, cautious temperament, and patriotic feeling. 

496. Dred Scott Decision. — A few days after Buchanan's 
inauguration the Supreme Court rendered its decision in the 
Dred Scott case. Dred Scott was a slave owned by Dr. Emer- 
son of Missouri. While in discharge of his duties as surgeon 
in the I'nited States Army, Dr. Emerson resided for several 
vears in the free State of Illinois, and in that part of tJie 




James Buchanan. 



CiKOWTH OF SKCriONAL ANTAGONISM. 3^9 

Louisiana territory now embraced in the State of ISIinnesota. 
The master carried his slave with him, and after his return to 
]N[issouvi sold Scott to a Mr. Sanford, a citizen of New York, 
Suit was instituted against Sanford in the name of Scott. 
I'pon the ground that residence in a free state and territory 
had secured his liberty, the slave was declared free by the 
State Circuit Court of Missouri. On appeal by Sanford, this 
decision was reversed bv the State Supreme Court. Scott, 
claiming to be a citizen of Missouri, then instituted suit in the 
Federal Circuit Court. If Scott was a citizen of Missouri, then 
the suit was between citizens of the ditYerent states, and could 
therefore be tried in the United States courts (^§ o4o'>- Sanford 
urged that Scott was not a citizen, but a slave, and, therefore, 
could not bring suit. This plea ^vas overruled, and a jury 
awarded Scott as a slave to Sanford. The case was then appealed 
bv Scott and went before the Supreme Court of the Ignited States 
for decision. After three years, in 1S57, the decision was an- 
nounced. The court, consisting" of nine justices, declared that 
no African, whether slave or free, could be a citizen of a state 
or of the I'nited States ; that Scott, upon his return to Mis- 
souri, had again become a slave. 

407. Results of the Decision. — The Court has been 
severelv censured for not stopping there. But thinking that 
the case involved the constitutionality of the ^Missouri Com- 
promise, the l\nirt considered that also. This compromise 
was declared unconstitutional, on the ground that the Louisi- 
ana territory was common property, and Congress had no 
right to discriminate against any state. (^Const., Art. IV, 
Sec. 2, clause i.^ In this decision seven of the nine justices 
concurred. Thirty-seven years after the passage of the 
Compromise Bill, the Court had at last an opportunity to ex- 
press its opinion as to the constitutionality of the measure. 
The decision was rendered in the hope that the political excite- 



330 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY, 

ment *might be allayed by this settlement of the question. 
But instead of averting the threatened danger, it added fuel to 
the flames. The anti-slavery element saw that every depart- 
ment of the government was against their views. The name 
of Chief Justice Taney was execrated at the North ; and 
although he had held the position of chief justice of the 
United States for nearly a quarter of a century, he was accused 
of playing into the hands of the Southern leaders. 

498. Mormon Insurrection. — During the first year of this 
administration, trouble arose with the Mormons in Utah. They 
objected to the establishment of Federal courts in their territo- 
ry, and prepared to resist the United States authorities. An 
army was sent against them, and upon a general proclamation 
of pardon, quiet was restored. 

499. Panic of 1857. — For a number of years the country 
had been in a prosperous condition. The great gold dis- 
coveries had given unusual stimulus to trade. Speculation 
was rife. A reaction, caused by too great stimulus, came in 
1857, and a financial panic occurred. Congress, to relieve the 
stringency, passed the tariff law of 1857, reducing tariff duties 
to the revenue level. This period has been called *' the free- 
trade era." 

500. The Lincoln-Douglas Debate. — Senator Douglas, of 
Illinois, by favoring the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, 
had made himself very popular at the South, though he was 
severely criticised at the North. He parted company, how- 
ever, with the South in the Kansas controversy. The South- 
ern party in Kansas adopted a constitution which allowed 
slavery, and applied for admission to the Union. The conven- 
tion was held at Lecompton, and the constitution adopted was 
therefore called the '' Lecompton Constitution." The opposi- 
tion charged unfairness and refrained from voting when the 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 33 1 

constitution was submitted for adoption by the people of the 
territory. Congress passed a bill admitting Kansas, but resub- 
mitting the constitution to a vote of the people. The constitu- 
tion was defeated this time, and Kansas remained a territory. 
Douglas opposed the enforcement of the Lecompton constitu- 
tion, and thus regained his hold in the North. He wished also 
to regain the leadership which he had lost in the South, for he 
wanted to be elected president. Accordingly, his canvass for 
the senatorship from Illinois, in 1858, attracted the attention 
of the whole country. His opponent was Abraham Lincoln, 
who was soon to be the foremost figure in the United States. 
The two candidates took the stump in their own interest, and 
a series of most important debates occurred. Douglas was an 
experienced debater and had no rival in his ability to present 
his side of the slavery question. His opponent, Abraham 
Lincoln, had a strong, logical mind, and his evident sincerity 
was sure to create a deep impression upon his hearers. 

The issue of these debates would affect not only the election 
to the United States Senate, but the decision as to who should 
be elected as the next president. Lincoln, in spite of the protest 
of his friends, said in his opening speech, " A house divided 
against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot 
endure half slave and half free. I do not expect the house to 
fall, but I expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all 
one thing or all the other." Whatever Lincoln may have meant 
by these words, it gave Douglas an opportunity to represent 
his opponent as a Disunionist. 

In the Dred Scott case Douglas's doctrine of " Squatter 
Sovereignty" (p. 325, footnote), which declared that the people 
of the territories might decide the question of slavery as they 
should see fit, had been repudiated by the Supreme Court. 
Lincoln asked if the people of a territory might legally keep out 
slavery. If Douglas answered "No," then not only Illinois but 
the entire North would be incensed; if he said "Yes" then the 



332 



HISTORY OF OUK COUNTKV. 



support of the South ^vould be totally lost. In this dilemma 
Douglas replied that as a matter of fact if the people of a terri- 
tory \vere hostile to slavery, slavery would not exist there. 
This answer satistied the people of Illinois, and he was elected 
to the Senate, but it offended the South and ruined his chances 
for the presidency. 

501. New States. — During this administration three new 
states were admitted into the Union: Minnesota in 1S5S ; 
Oregon in 1S59 ; and Kansas in 1S61. All of these states 
came in as free states. Kansas, which had been refused ad- 
mission as a free state by the Senate, was 
admitted in 1S61 after some of the Southern 
senators had withdrawn from the Senate. 

502. Mineral Discoveries. — In 1S5S. 
just ten years after the discoveries in Cali- 
fornia, gold mines were found at Pike's Peak, 
Colorado. Already it had been found that 
large areas of the United States contained 
coal-bearing strata, and that the cost of fuel 
would otter no impediment to the develop- 
ment of our country. In the same year that 
gold was discovered in Colorado, the Com- 
stock Silver Mines were discovered at 
Virginia City, Nevada. Up to this time it 
was not known that there were any 
silver deposits in the I'nited States. 
Since then the West has produced 
most of the world's silver. 

In 1S59. rich underground oil 

streams were found in Pennsylvania. 

Wells were sunk and the oil brought 

to the surface. These wells were richer in usefulness to man 

than even the 2.Teat mines of Colorado. 




GKOWril OF SFCTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



:» .1 ."> 



503. Scientific Progress. — The first maps of tbo winds and 
cm rents of iho soa wore made by Matthew F. Maury, Superin- 
tondont of tlie United 
States Xaval Observatory 
(^soe biographical sketch, 
A p p e n d i X B\ T h e y 
pro\ed o f w o rid- n\ i d e 
benotit as a means of 
saving- every year millions 
of dollars and thousands 
of lives. Alaury's obser- 
vations of the winds and 
his suggestions based 
upon them wore the be- 
ginning of our present 
1 a b o r a t e s y s t m o f 
weather reports. By the 
aid of a deep sea sounding 

apparatus devised bv his associate, John M. Brooke, of Virginia, 
Maurv discovered the existence of a plateau in the bed of the 
northern Atlantic, upon which the first Atlantic cable was after- 
ward laid (§ 6 1 4V 




Matthew F. Maury. 



504. John Brown's Raid. — Prodigious excitement had 
been produced at the North by the Dred Scott decision. 
Equally intense was the excitement produced in the South by 
the John Brown Raid. John Brown was a half-crazy fanatic, 
who conceived the notion that it was his special mission to 
overthrow slaverv. Recognizing no law but his own conception 
of right, he had figured as a bloody fanatic in the Kansas 
struggle. His large familv of sons were very like their father. 
This familv and a few friends, under Brown, conceived a plan 
of liberating and arming the slaves. With the view of securing 
the necessary arms, they seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, 



334 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Va., in October, 1859. The band numbered less than two 
dozen. Before they could escape they were easily captured by 
Col. Robert E. Lee with a few United States troops. In resist- 
ing capture most of the band were killed. The survivors were 
tried and executed by the Virginia authorities. 

Intense sympathy for Brown was manifested in many parts 
of the North. He was eulogized as a martyr. Abolitionists of 
the Wendell Phillips and William Lloyd Garrison type approved 
his terrible scheme; the expressions of such men caused the 
gravest apprehension in the South. Brown's plot seemed to 
foreshadow larger plots for servile insurrection with all its 
attendant horrors, and it led the South to believe that an 
Abolitionist president, if elected, would aid such plots. 

PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF i8bo. 

505. The Democratic Convention met in Charleston, S.C, 
April 23, i860, to nominate candidates for the presidency and 
vice-presidency. The Southern members insisted that the 
Dred Scott decision (§ 496) be endorsed in the platform, and 
they opposed the nomination of Douglas. 

The Northern members refused to endorse the platform sub- 
mitted. To do so would, they feared, cause defeat in their own 
states. The Southern members refused to accept less than the 
endorsement of the Dred Scott decision. 

506. First Split in Democratic Party. — The convention 
split in two. Many of the Southern delegates withdrew and 
decided to meet later in Richmond. The rest of the conven- 
tion, though largely Douglas men, could not agree on a candi- 
date. On May 3 the convention adjourned to give time for the 
vacancies caused by the seceding members to be filled. They 
adjourned to meet in Baltimore. 

507. Constitutional Party. — While the Democratic Con- 
vention had been in session at Charleston, the Constitutional 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 335 

Union party had met. This was composed mainly of the old 
Know-Nothing sympathizers. They were joined also by a large 
number who were weary of the agitation of the slavery question. 
They nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, for the presidency, 
and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts, for the vice-presidency. 

508. Republicans. — On May i6 the Republican Conven- 
tion assembled at Chicago. The general expectation was that 
W. H. Seward would be nominated, and on the first ballot he 
received the largest number of votes. There was strong oppo- 
sition to him, however, and it was thought best to conciliate it. 
On the third ballot Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, was nominated 
for the presidency. Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, was placed 
on the ticket for the vice-presidency. 

509. Second Split in Democratic Party. — The larger ele- 
ment of the Dem.ocratic party containing the Northern dele- 
gates convened at Baltimore on June 18. The contested seats 
were decided in favor of the Douglas men. This caused a 
second split ; and the chairman of the convention, most of the 
Southern members, and a few Northerners withdrew. Those 
remaining nominated Douglas of Illinois by adopting the 
majority vote. 

The second set of seceders adopted the platform which 
caused the division in Charleston. Their nominees were John 
C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, and Joseph Lane, of Oregon. 
Their action was endorsed by the first set of seceders when 
they met in Richmond. 

Thus we find four strong parties with candidates for the 
presidency. 

510. Position of the Parties on Slavery. — The Repub- 
lican party, under the leadership of Lincoln, declared that 
slavery was a local institution, and owed its existence to state 
laws; that it had no rights in the territories, and that Congress 
should prohibit its extension. 



33^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

The Southern wing of the Democratic party, with Breckin- 
ridge as their champion, affirmed that Congress should protect 
all property in the territories, and therefore the property in 
slaves. They based their demands on the decision of the 
Supreme Court. 

The Northern Democrats declared their willingness to abide 
by the Supreme Court decision, yet adhered to the " Squatter 
Sovereignty " doctrine. With their leader, Douglas, they held 
that it was possible to exclude slavery from any territory if the 
people of the territory voted to do so. 

The Constitutional Union party desired to avoid the slavery 
issue. They merely declared their loyalty to the Constitution 
and devotion to the Union. 

511. The Election. — The Republicans went into the cam- 
paign with the utmost enthusiasm. In convention they de- 
nounced the John Brown Raid, but the Abolitionists constituted 
a large and aggressive element of the party. 

As the number of Abolitionists increased, their crusade 
against slavery grew in intensity. They now hoped, through 
the election of Lincoln, to strike a fatal blow at slavery, even 
by subverting the Constitution, if necessary (§ 439 et seg,). 
It is not strange that the masses of the Southern people began 
to conclude that Lincoln's election would make it necessary for 
the Southern states to secede if the inherent rights of the states 
were to be preserved. The Republicans won the election chiefly 
because their opponents were divided. Lincoln carried the 
Northern states, Breckinridge the South, Bell the border states 
of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and Douglas carried 
Missouri. The vote of New Jersey was divided between Lincoln 
and Douglas. Douglas's strength lay in the same states as Lin- 
coln's, but Lincoln carried all of these states except New Jersey, 
and received the majority of the votes of that state. The popu- 
lar vote gave Lincoln 1,866,541; Douglas, 1,375,157; Breckin- 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



337 



ridge, 847,953; Bell, 590,631. Thus we see that the opposition 
to Lincoln was very strong, and that he received far less than 
a majority of the popular vote. By electoral votes the result 
stood : Lincoln, 180 ; Breckinridge, 72 ; Bell, 39 ; Douglas, 12. 

512. Effect of the Election. — When it became known that 
Lincoln was elected, the excitement in the South grew intense. 
Secession, which heretofore had been viewed as a mere possi- 



M--:: 






1- — 



A \\J TERRI 




V,- / KANSAS territory" ^^.'— ? 1^ f *i 

bv, V-y X ^0- TERRITorA. [' 'i INDIAN \ / . ^ /' 




Area of Slave and Free States. 



bility, now seemed to the South a necessity. Yet love for the 
Union which their fathers had established inclined conserva- 
tive people North and South still to hope that some way would 
be found to avert the impending separation ; but affairs were 
rapidly approaching a crisis wherein the North and South 
would soon be arrayed in deadly opposition to each other. 

513. Buchanan's Message. — President Buchanan, in his 
message to Congress, which met on December 3, i860, justified 
in a large measure the attitude of the South. He declared the 



338 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. | 



Constitution and Federal laws had been nullified by the " Per- 
sonal Liberty Laws " (§ 483) passed by the Northern states, 
denounced the so-called " underground railway " (§ 483), and 
condemned the anti-slavery agitation so prevalent at the North. 
While he did not admit that secession was a right, he declared 
that the general government had no power to coerce a state. 

514. Efforts at Compromise. — Efforts were made in both 
Houses of Congress to avert the impending peril by compro- 
mise, but they came to naught. Senator Crittenden, of Ken- 
tucky, proposed that the Constitution be so amended as to 
establish the 36° 30' line (§ 417) between the free and slave 
territory, and that payment be made out of the Treasury of 
the United States for such fugitive slaves as could not be 
recovered. Action on his resolution was postponed until 
seven states had seceded, and then it was defeated. A com- 
mittee of thirteen senators, chosen from Southern Democrats, 
Northern Democrats, and Republicans, was appointed to find a 
basis of compromise, but they were unable to agree because 
the Republican members, flushed with their recent victory,^ 
were unwilling to make any concessions. A similar effort in 
the House of Representatives proved equally futile. 

Virginia invited all the states to send delegates to a Peace 
Congress, which was to meet in Washington on February 4. 
Twenty-one states responded, and ex-President John Tyler 
presided over the conference, but the movement was fruitless. 
Sectional feeling had grown too strong to be arrested by 
compromise. 

1 In reply to a boastful remark of Senator Seward to the effect that "the North 
was now to take charge of the Government," Senator Hammond, of South Carolina, 
said : " Do not forget, it cannot be forgotten, that we, the slaveholders of the South, 
took our country in her infancy and, after ruling her sixty out of seventy years of her 
existence, surrender her to you without a stain upon her honor, boundless in wealth, 
incalculable in strength, the wonder and admiration of the world ! Time will tell 
what you will do for her ; but time will never diminish our glory or your responsi- 
bility." 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 339 

515' Secession. — The electors in South Carolina were 
chosen by the Legislature. After choosing them the Legis- 
lature remained in session to await the result of the election. 
When the news of Lincoln's election was received the Legis- 
lature called a convention to be elected by the people. This 
convention was to take such action as the emergency demanded. 
It met December 17, and on the 20th, by a unanimous vote, 
passed the Secession Ordinance., recalling the consent given to 
the Federal Constitution in 1788 and to the amendments 
adopted afterward. 

516. First Area of Secession. — In January, 1861, Mis- 
sissippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana seceded, 
and in February Texas also left the Union. In all these 
states conventions of the people passed the secession or- 
dinances. In Texas the action of the convention was sub- 
mitted to the people and ratified by popular vote. 

As the states seceded, their senators and representatives 
withdrew from the Federal Congress,^ and Southern officers 
generally withdrew from the Federal army and navy.^ 

517. Federal Property. — As the states seceded they took 
possession of all forts, arsenals, and other Federal property 
within their limits, so far as they could do so without bloodshed. 
Soon the only forts within the seceded states remaining in the 
possession of the Federals were those at Charleston, Pensacola, 
Key West, and the Dry Tortugas. The sites on which the 
Federal buildings stood had been ceded by the states to the 

1 Their grounds for action were shown in the admirable address of Jefferson Davis 
on leaving the Senate. — (Davis's "Rise and Fall of the Confederacy," Vol. I, pp. 
221-225.) 

2 General Robert E. Lee, who resigned after Virginia seceded, expressed in noble 
and patriotic language the sentiments of these officers. He showed that he loved 
the Union, which he had served for twenty-five years, but his loyalty to his state was 
supreme. " Save in defense of my native state," he wrote to General Scott, " I 
never desire again to draw my sword." 



340 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

general government for the protection of the states ; after the 
states seceded these sites could not be used for the purpose 
for which they were ceded, and hence, as the South held, they 
reverted to the states. The right of all the states in buildings 
and other Federal property, except the sites, was recognized at 
the South, and commissioners were sent in December by South 
Carolina to arrange for a friendly adjustment of the questions 
relating to this Federal property v/ithin their limits, as well 
as the national debt (§ 523). 

518. The Right of Secession. — An exhaustive discussion 
of the right of secession does not belong to the province of a 
school history.^ Secession and the attendant questions have 
been subjects of sharp controversy, in which widely different 
views have been held, but in regard to the whole question, the 
South steadfastly maintained (i) that secession was a historic 
and legal right of the states ; (2) that the Southern states had 
sufficient reason for withdrawing from the Union. 

(i) Secession a Historic Eight. — The right of a state to 
secede was not questioned during the time while the Constitu- 
tion was being formed and while the states were entering into 
the Union. It is safe to say that the Union could not have 
been formed had the right to secede been denied. Virginia, 
New York, and Rhode Island (§ 339), in adopting the Consti- 
tution, expressly affirmed the right of the people of the states 
to resume the powers delegated to the Union if they should 
find cause to do so afterwards. Innumerable instances of the 
assertion of this right by statesmen, jurists, political writers, 
state legislatures, and conventions may be cited. In the early 
years of our country's history the secession sentiment was 
strongest in New England. It was shown when negotiations 

1 Convenient and accessible works treating this subject more fully are Davis's 
" Rise and Fall of the Confederacy," Stephens's " W^ar between the States," Curry's 
" The South," Rhodes's " History of the United States." The complete bibliography 
of the subject is very extensive. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 34 1 

for closing the Mississippi failed (§ 333),^ when Jefferson was 
a candidate for the presidency, and negotiations were pending 
for the purchase of Louisiana.^ During the War of 18 12 the 
New England states were making threats of secession, when 
the Treaty of Ghent put an end to the scheme (§ 407). The 
Massachusetts Legislature in 1844 resolved that, "The project 
of the annexation of Texas, unless arrested on the threshold, 
may tend to drive these states into a dissolution of the Union." ^ 
There was little difference between the North and the South 
on this point : the majority of the Northern states had threat- 
ened, the majority of the Southern states acted ; both had 
affirmed the right. 

(2) Secession a Legal Right. — A brief statement of the 
legal ground of the right of secession is as follows : The states 
were "free, sovereign, and independent," and .were so recog- 
nized by each other (§ 328) and by England in the Treaty of 
Paris (§ 323) prior to the adoption of the Constitution. The 
Constitution was formed as a compact or agreement between 
these "free, sovereign, and independent" states. The general 
government of the United States provided in the Constitution 
was created to promote the general welfare of the states. Its 
powers were given to it by the states and were specified by the 
Constitution ; all other powers were reserved to the states. 
In case of violation of the Constitution by any member of the 
Union, the other members were released from obligation to 
maintain the Union. Secession, or withdrawal from the com- 
pact, was a final and peaceable mode of redress. Such were 
the teachings of many of the fathers and founders of the 
United States. The people of the Southern states held stead- 
fastly to these teachings and believed sincerely and implicitly 
that the states had the legal right to withdraw from the Union. 

1 Fiske's " Critical Period," p. 221. 

2 " Welling on Conn. Fed.," pp. 9-1 1. 

3 Davis's " Kise and Fall of the Confederacy," Vol. I, p. 96. 



342 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

519. Reasons for Secession. — It is an error to suppose 
that the Southern states rushed hastily and blindly into seces- 
sion. The grave questions involved in a course so decisive as 
that of seceding from the Union were discussed with intense 
earnestness throughout the South. The states, at last con- 
cluding that their constitutional rights could not be saved in 
the Union, deliberately withdrew. Their reasons for this course 
may be summed up as follows: — 

(i) Fourteen Northern states, by passing "Personal Liberty 
Laws" (§§ 483, 513), had nullified the Constitution (see 
Art. 4, § 2, of Constitution, in Appendix), and they had also 
violated Federal laws passed in pursuance of the Constitution. 
These violations of the Constitution by the Northern states 
not only absolved the Southern states from further obligation 
to the constitutional compact, but they also showed that the 
Constitution could not be enforced and the government main- 
tained with these states. 

(2) The North had abandoned the historic and legal view 
(§ 518) of a Union under the terms of the Constitution. 
It had come to hold that the Constitution was not a compact 
between the states, but the supreme law over the states, and 
that not only was the Union not created by the states, but 
that the states had been created by the Union. These ideas 
were held by the Republican party, which was just coming 
into power. This party was pledged to disregard certain 
decisions of the Supreme Court and to attack slavery.^ 

(3) Sectional feeling between the North and South existed 
to some extent in Colonial days, being apparent even in the 
convention that formed the Constitution.^ This feeling became 
stronger as the conflict of interests between the agricultural and 

1 The Republican party denounced the Died Scott decision of the Supreme Court. 
See platform Republican party passed at Chicago, 1S60. 

2 Madison said : " It seems now to be pretty well understood that the real dif- 
ference of interest lay, not between the large and small, but between the Northern 
and Southern states." — (2 Madison, 1104.) 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 343 

manufacturing communities began to find expression in tariff 
legislation (§ 436) ; but it was the growth of abolitionism that 
transformed sectional feeling into sectional fury. Although 
the Republican party denounced the John Brown Raid, still the 
Abolitionists at the North glorified John Brown, fanatic as he 
was, whose mad plot sent a thrill of horror into every Southern 
home. Slavery and slaveholders were denounced, in public 
and in private, by the press, from pulpit and rostrum, in story, 
essay, and poem.^ This persistent and powerful crusade inevi- 
tably incensed and imbittered the South beyond endurance. 
Among the masses of the people. North and South, sectional 
antipathy supplanted the friendlier feeling of earlier times. 
Thus differences in ideas, sentiment, and institutions had made 
two different peoples, almost two different countries, of the 
North and the South. A separation was felt to be the only 
logical outcome. 

(4) Lincoln had declared that "the country cannot exist 
half slave and half free." To the South this meant that 
Lincoln and the great party which had elected him would 
undermine the constitutional rights of the states wherever 
and whenever it was practicable to do so in the interest of 
abolition. 

The question with every Southerner then was, What is best 
for the South to do in view of all the circumstances ? Can the 
rights of the states be preserved best in the Union or out of 
the Union ? The question was answered by her acts ; she 
withdrew from the Union. 

1 The South was not responsible for the existence of African slavery in the United 
States (§§ gi, 139). The Southern whites suffered more from its existence than 
anybody else. The evils of the institution were greatly exaggerated. Public senti- 
ment in the South discountenanced cruelty and neglect on the part of the slave- 
holder. Masters were generally kind and humane to their slaves, and the slaves 
were generally loyal and well affected toward their masters. Exceptional cases of 
ill treatment were often taken as texts for the slander and abuse of the Southern 
people. 



344 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

520. Cause of the War. — The Southern states in seceding 
were seeking peace, which they could no longer hope for in the 
Federal Union. They did not desire war, and many believed 
that war would not follow ; for, if the Federal government 
had observed its constitutional powers and respected the original 
and inherent rights of the states, war would have been averted ; 
as secession was a right of the states (§§ 518 et seq.), coer- 
cion — that is, the use of force by the general government to 
keep states in the Union — was beyond its constitutional 
powers. Coercion was opposed by many eminent Northerners,^ 
as well as by many influential journals ; " indeed, any purpose 
of direct coercion was disclaimed by nearly all." ^ Neverthe- 
less, as the states seceded, the sentiment in favor of the main- 
tenance of the Union by force, if necessary, grew stronger in 
the North, until it became a passionate desire and purpose. It 
was this purpose on the part of the North of coercing (§ 527) 
the states, and the acts (§ 528) on the part of the Fed- 
eral government resulting from this spirit, that caused the 
war between the states. In the North the "National" idea 
had supplanted the theory of the Constitution.^ To enforce 
this idea, the Government of the United States undertook to 
invade and conquer the South. Thus the Southern people 
were forced either to submit to aggression or to fight. They 
accepted the fateful issue, and thus began one of the mightiest 
struggles of modern times. 

521. The Confederate States of America. — South Caro- 
lina, after passing the Ordinance of Secession, issued a call 
for a convention of such states as should secede. This con- 
vention was appointed to be held at Montgomery on February 4. 

1 Horace Greeley said : " If the cotton states shall decide that they can do better 
out of the Union than in it, we insist on letting them go in peace. The right to 
secede may be a revolutionary one, but it exists nevertheless." 

2 Davis's "Rise and Fall of the Confederacy," Vol. I, p. 252. 
S Woodrow Wilson's " The State," pp. 477-480. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



345 



Delegates from six states, all the seceding states except Texas,^ 
met and organized by electing Howell Cobb, of Georgia, 
as permanent chairman. On February 8 the convention 
adopted a provisional Con- 
stitution and thus created 
a new Union, the Confed- 
erate States of America, 
and on the next day, Feb- 
ruary 9, Jefferson Davis, 
of Mississippi, was elected 
president, and Alexander 
H. Stephens, of Georgia, 
was elected vice-president. 
Nine days later President 
Davis was inaugurated. In 
his inaugural message he 
reviewed briefly the causes 
which had made the organ- 
ization of the new Union 
necessary, and declared 

that the Confederacy was " moved by no interest or passion to 
invade the rights of others," and that it was " anxious to culti- 
vate peace and commerce with all nations." 

Mr. Davis selected as members of his first cabinet: ^ Robert 
Toombs, of Georgia, secretary of state; S. R. Mallory, of 
Florida, secretary of the navy; Judah P. Benjamin, of Louisi- 




Alexander H. Stephens. 



1 The delegates from Texas, whose convention had adopted the Secession Ordi- 
nance on February i, awaited the result of the popular election (February 23) on 
the adoption of the Ordinance. Texas was admitted on March 2, the anniversary 
of Texan independence. 

2 During the greater part of the existence of the Confederacy, however, the cabi- 
net stood as follows : Judah P. Benjamin, secretary of state ; C. G. Memminger, 
secretary of the treasury ; James A, Seddon, secretary of war ; S. R. Mallory, secre- 
tary of the navy ; John H. Reagan, postmaster-general. Reagan was also secretary 
of the treasury during the last few months of the Confederacy. 



346 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

ana, attorney-general; John H. Reagan, of Texas, postmaster- 
general; C. G. Memminger, of South Carolina, secretary of 
the treasury; L. P. Walker, of Alabama, secretary of war. 
He also, in compliance with a resolution passed by the Con- 
federate Congress, appointed A. B. Roman, of Louisiana, 
M. J. Crawford, of Georgia, and John Forsyth, of Alabama, as 
commissioners to adjust with the United States all questions 
of difference between the two governments. 

The convention which formed the Confederate Constitu- 
tion, remaining in session, adopted, on March 11, a perma- 
nent Constitution modeled on the Constitution of the United 
States. This Constitution^ was submitted to the seceding 
states and ratified by them. The permanent Confederate 
government was put into operation February 22, 1S62. 

522. The President of the Southern Confederacy. — 
Jefferson Davis, the first and only president of the Confederate 
States, was born in 180S in Kentucky. His father removed 
shortly after to Mississippi. After attending Transylvania 
University, Davis entered West Point, and was graduated in 
the class of 1 8 28. He served in the army until 1835, when he 
resigned and settled upon his plantation in Mississippi. In 
1845 he was elected to Congress. As Colonel of the isi Mis- 
sissippi Rifles he won distinction at Monterey and Buena Vista. 
He became United States senator from Mississippi in 1847. 

1 Some of its features -worthy of note are as follows : — 

(i) The doctrine of state sovereignty was clearly defined. 

(2) Foreign slave trade was forbidden, 

(3) No protective tariff was to be levied. 

(4) Members of the cabinet were given the right to speak in Congress. 

(5) The term of office tor president and vice-president was made six years, and 
they were ineligible for reelection. 

(6) The president was allowed to veto single items in appropriation bills. 

(7) Any officer of the Confederate government acting solely within a state could 
be impeached by a vote of two-thirds of both branches of the Legislature of the state. 




JEFFERSON DAVIS. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 34/ 

He was secretary of war under Pierce from 1853 to 1857. In 
1857 he was again elected senator, and in 1861 he withdrew from 
the Senate after the secession of Mississippi. He was elected 
provisional president of the Confederate States for one year, 
on February 9, 1861, and on November of the same year he 
was unanimously chosen by the electoral vote of the Confed- 
erate States to be president for six years from February 22, 
1862. On that date the Confederate government was organized 
under its permanent Constitution at Richmond, Va., and Mr. 
Davis was inaugurated. He served the South ably and faith- 
fully until the Confederacy was destroyed. He was captured 
by Federal troops in Georgia at the close of the war, thrown 
into a dungeon, and grievously mistreated. He was kept in 
prison two years under the charge of treason, but the Federal 
government would never try him on the charge. The foremost 
jurists of the country advised that no case could be made 
against him (see § 612). He was at last released on bail, 
one of his bondsmen being Horace Greeley, the famous Aboli- 
tionist editor of the New York Tribune. Mr. Davis spent the 
remaining years of his eventful life chiefly in travel or at 
his beautiful Mississippi home, " Beauvoir." His death, on 
December 6, 1889, called forth a deep and spontaneous out- 
pouring of love and sorrow from the people whom he had led 
so loyally in prosperity and in adversity. 

After Calhoun, Mr. Davis was the ablest expounder of the 
doctrine of state sovereignty that the country has produced. 
A Christian gentleman, he was tried as few other men in the 
world's history have been tried. As a soldier, statesman, 
orator, thinker, and man, he is worthy of all honor. 

Vice-President of the Southern Confederacy. — Alexander 
H. Stephens was born in 18 12 in Georgia. He was care- 
fully educated, and graduated from the University of Georgia. 
After teaching for a year he became a lawyer. He served in 



34S HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the Georgia Legislature, and in 1843 ^^s elected to Congress, 
and was reelected six times. Stephens believed in secession 
as a right, but opposed the step as a matter of policy. When 
Georgia seceded, however, he resigned his seat in Congress, 
and, joining his fortunes with his state, became vice-president 
of the Confederacy. He entered United States Congress again 
in 1877, and served until 18S2, when he was elected governor 
of Georgia. He died in 1883, before the close of his term. 
In Stephens were joined a slight and delicate physical frame 
and an intellect of wonderful power. Simple and unaffected 
in manner, broad and liberal in character, pure in public and 
private life, he possessed in a remarkable degree the confidence 
and affection of his people. 

523. End of Buchanan's Administration. — Buchanan was 
not the man to deal with the great crisis. He condemned both 
secession and coercion (§ 513). His cabinet was divided, and 
several members resigned. Secretary Lewis Cass, of Michigan, 
withdrew from the cabinet because the president would not 
reinforce Major Anderson, who commanded the Federal gar- 
rison at Fort Moultrie in Charleston Harbor. Secretary John 
B. Floyd, of Virginia, resigned because Buchanan permitted 
Anderson to transfer his forces to Fort Sumter, a much stronger 
position, commanding the entrance to the harbor. The presi- 
dent refused official recognition to the Carolina commissioners 
sent to arrange for the withdrawal of the Federal garrison from 
the forts (§517), but he received them informally, and led 
them to believe that their mission would be successful. Then 
he tried to reinforce Major Anderson by sending secretly a 
steamer, Star of the West, with troops and provisions — an 
attempt which failed only because the vessel was driven back 
by Carolina cannon. This act of hostility to the seceded 
states caused Secretary Jacob Thompson, of Mississippi, to 
retire from the cabinet. Congress gave the president no aid 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 349 

(§ 514). Secession was consummated. Sentiment at the 
North was crystallizing in favor of coercion. Thus Buchanan's 
administration closed beneath the shadows of the impending 
conflict. 

524. Summary. — The decision of the Supreme Court in the Dred 
Scott case, that no slave could be a citizen, and that the Missouri Compro- 
mise was unconstitutional, caused political excitement in the North. A 
Mormon insurrection was quelled by United States troops. To relieve 
financial stringency, the low tariff act of 1857 was passed. The debates of 
Lincoln and Douglas in their canvass for the senatorship of Illinois attracted 
national attention. The first maps of the winds and currents of the sea 
were made by M. F. Maury. John Brown's lawless effort to free the 
slaves caused excitement and apprehension in the South. In the presiden- 
tial campaign of i860 the Democratic party split, and there were four can- 
didates in the field. Lincoln, the Republican candidate, was elected. 
Believing that with the Republican party in power their rights under the 
Constitution were no longer safe, the Southern states determined to with- 
draw from the Union. Secession, an historic and legal right of the states. 
Efforts at compromise proved futile. South Carolina led off in December, 
followed quickly by Georgia and the five Gulf states. The government of 
the Confederate States was organized with Jefferson Davis as president 
and Alexander H. Stephens as vice-president. The seceded states took 
possession of Federal property in their territory, and were active in organiz- 
ing the new government. In the North sentiment was divided. Major 
Anderson, commanding the Federal garrison at Fort Moultrie, transferred 
his men to Fort Sumter. A steamer bearing reinforcements to Fort Sumter 
was driven back. 

525. Thought Questions. — On what occasion did Congress first limit 
the extension of slavery.? Was this before or after the adoption of our 
present Constitution ? Show how the Dred Scott decision affected the 
extension of slavery. Mention another important decision of the Supreme 
Court. Give an outline of tariff legislation up to the close of Buchanan's 
administration. Mention the occasions in our history when the right of 
secession has been claimed. 



350 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Topical Analysis. (Growth of Sectional Antagonism.) 

433. The New President. 

_, . _ „ ; Jackson's policv. 

434. Changes in Office. S t^ ,- r , ' -j 
^ * l^ Pohcy of later presidents. 

f First United States banks. 

^. ,. • , ^ , i lackson's opposition. 

435. The National Bank. -( "^ , /^ 
^-^ i Removal of deposits. 

I Final action of Congress. 

f The tirst tariff. 

I Positions of New England and the South 

,_.„_, I Tariff of 1S16. 

430. Tarifi Development. ^ ,-,, , . ^ 

^ I C hange of sentiment. 

I Tariff of iS-^4. 

I Tariff of iSjS. 



§ 

< 

00 ^ 437. Nullification. 
S 

< 



The Hayne-Webster debate. 

Tariff of 1S32. 

Action of South Carolina. 

Action of the president. 

The Calhaun-Webster debate. 

Compromise tariff. 



03 , , , ^ . . { The Sacs and the Foxes. 

^ i 43^. Indian Uprisings. I „,, . , 

R 1*-^ *^ ** 1 he beminoles. 



r The pioneers. 

»,. .,,.,.■ , Various opinions. 

430.440.441. The Abolition Crusade, s _ , r • , 
^^' j Deeds of violence. 

I Action of Congress. 



44J. Railways. 

New States. 1 



First railway in the I'nited States. 
Steam engines. 
First locomotive. 
Increase of railways. 
Two new states. 

f Opposition to Jackson. 
443. The Whig Party. ^ Rise of Whigs. 

[_ Presidential election. 



GROWTH OF SFXTIONAIi ANTAGONISM. 35 

f 446. The New President. 

_. . , _, . ( Cause. 

447. Financial Panic. { ,, 

/ Results. 
VAN BUREN'S ^ 

ADMINIS- ^ ^^s. The Sub-Treasury. J '^^^^ President's views. 
— * — — (^ bub-treasury system. 



TRATION. 

1837-41. 



_, f The abolitionists. 

449- Slavery. | ,,^,^,.^_^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ 



450. Scientific Progress. 

453. Harrison's Election and Death. 

454. President Tyler : Services and character. 

r Repeal of Sub-treasury law. 

mi- -KT J.- 1 -n 1 /^ J. J I'assage of Bank bills. 

4^5. The National Bank Controversy, s ^, .f , 

' 1 resident s vetoes. 

Results. 

/-«>^.,.,..L m J. { Trouble with Great Britain. 
4s6. The Ashburton Treaty. ,. , ^ , ,. 

( Settlement of the dispute. 

457. The Tariff Legislation : The Tariff of 1S42. 

f Suffrage in Rhode Island. 

4 58. The Dorr Rebellion. -^ Uprising of Dorr. 

1^ New constitution. 

f Founder of the sect. 

459. The Mormons. ^ Troubles in Illinois. 

[ Settlement in Utah. 

. _ . , / The first experiment. 

\ Spread of telegraph lines. 



461. Texas. 



The Texas revolution. 
The Republic of Texas. 
The state of Texas. 
Presidential election. 
Annexation. 



462. Florida and Iowa admitted. 



352 



HISTOKV OF OUR COUNTRY, 



POLK'S 
ADMINIS- 
TRATION. 

1845-49. 

(War with 

Mexico.) 



TAYLOR 

AND 

FILLMORE'S , 

ADMINIS- ^ 

TRATION. 

1849-53. 



465. The New President. 

466. The Oregon ( Claims of England and of U. S. 



Boundary. ( Boundary settled. 



467. The Oregon Trail. 



First explorations. 
Trading expeditions. 
First settlement. 
Rivalry of English. 
W hitman's achievements. 



,„ ^ . . - f Disputed boundary of Texas. 

46S. Beginning of ^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^ 

the War. 1 ,-,. , 

[^ Pirst engagement. 

^ « XX, . ^ ( P^^lo Alto. 

469. Battles in Texas. { ., , , t^ , 

( Kesaca de la Palma. 



470. Taylor's Invasion 
of Mexico. 



Capture of Monterey. 
Battle of Buena Vista. 



o XX, T • r ^ era Cruz. 

471- Scott's Invasion ' . , , ,, ., , 

- „ . < March to the capital. 

of Mexico. i V. ,, r „ ., 
(^ rail of the city. 

r The Mexican province. 

472. Conquest of California. <( Fremont's campaign. 

[^ Commodore Sloat. 

473. New Mexico Taken : Ivearney's campaign. 

474. Treaty of Peace : New State. 

r The discovery of gold. 

475. 476. Gold in California. -^ The "gold fever." 

[ Increase in population. 

f The services of Taylor. 
479. The Presidents, -l Death of Taylor. 

[ Services of Fillmore. 

Military government of California 
Movements toward statehood. 
The old controversy. 

4S1. Conflicting Opinions. 

The " Omnibus Bill." 
Debate on the bill. 



4S0. 



The Problem 
of the Ad- 
ministration. 



4S2. Compromise of 1850. 



GROWTH OF SECTIONAL ANTAGONISM. 



353 



TAYLOR 
AND 
FILLMORE'S 
ADMINIS- 
TRATION. 
( Continued.) 



483. The Fugitive-Slave 
Agitation. 



484. Railroad Development. 



The Fugitive-Slave Law. 
Resistance by individuals. 
Nullification by states. 
" Underground Railway." 
Views of Northern statesmen. 

The Erie Railroad. 
Increase of railroads. 



PIERCE'S 
ADMINIS- 
TRATION. 

1853-57. 



487. The New President. 

r First settlers of the plains. 

488. The Kansas-Nebraska J Douglas's bill. 

Bill. I Opposition to the bill, 

t Its passage. 

. , f Emigrant societies 

489. The Struggle for I ^ . ^ ,, 
-^ __ -{ Immigration to Wi 

[ Conflicts. 



Kansas. 



Kansas. 



490. The Republican Party. 

491. Our First World's Fair. 



First principles. 
Composition of the party. 



492. Treaty with Japan : Gadsden Purchase. 

495. The New President. 

Origin of the suit. 



496, 497. The Dred Scott 
Decision. 



Appeals and final decision. 
Results of the decision. 



498. Mormon Insurrection. 

499. Panic of 1857 



Cause. 

New tariff law. 

r Position of Douglas on Mo. Compromise. 
500. Lincoln-Douglas J Mis position on the Kansas question. 
Debate. ] Canvass for Illinois senatorship. 

t Debates of the candidates. 



501. New States. 



502. 



Mineral Discoveries. 



Gold in Colorado. 

Coal. 

Silver. 

Oil wells. 



354 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



503. Scientific Progress. 1 ^^ , ,. 
( Bed. or 



of winds and sea currents. 

Atlantic explored. 

f Brown's plan. 

,^, t«ni -D^^ -» r»-.:jj ] Seizure of U. S. arsenal. 

504. John Brown's Raid. <{ 

j Capture and execution. 

I Feeling in North and South. 
' Democratic Convention at Charleston. 
505-510. Presidential ^''^^ 'P^^* ^" Democratic party. 
Campaign <> Constitutional party. 



of i860. 



Republicans. 

Second split in Democratic party. 
L Position of the parties on slavery. 
C The Abolitionists. 

511, 512. The Election. ^ ^°*^ °^ *^^ ^^^^^^^^^^ 

1 Popular vote and electoral vote. 

I Effect of the election. 

( Northern nullification. 

513. Buchanan's Message. <( Anti-slavery agitation. 

[^ Secession. 

^„ , . „ . i Crittenden's proposition. 

514. Efforts at Compromise, s _, ^ ^ ^ 

< Peace Congress. 

f Action of Legislature of South Carolina. 

515. 516. Secession. <J Convention of South Carolina. 

(^ Action of other Southern states. 

„ , , ^ ^ ( Action of Seceded states. 

517. Federal Property. 1 c ^u r- r » 

' South Carolina s commissioners. 

r, ^. , . 1. « • i Historic view. 

518. Right of Secession. 1^1- r 

( Legal view. [states. 

f Violations of Constitution by Northern 

519. Reasons for Seces- J Centralizing tendencies of North. 

sion. j Sectional feeling. 

I Success of Republican party. 

« i: a.,. „T i The South's desire. 

520. Cause of the War. i r- .-,, r 

•" ( Growth of coercion sentiment. 

f Organization. 

521. 522. The Confederate States. J Constitution. 

Sketch of President. 
I Sketch of Vice-President. 
523. End of Buchanan's Ad- f I^i^isions in the cabinet. 

ministration. S Reception of S. C. commissioners. 

I Affairs at Charleston Harbor. 




,^//^^^<h>i^ 



£r^^y 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES, 



Lincoln's Administration. 
1861-1865. 

FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 

526. Services and Character of the New President. — 

Abraham Lincohi was born of poor parents, in Kentucky, 
February 12, 1809. With his parents he removed first to 
Indiana and afterward to Illinois. Young Lincoln was reared 
amid the hardships, privations, and heroic energies of our 
pioneer life. He worked on the farm, cleared land, split rails, 
as other farm-hands did ; he was for a time a boatman on the 
Mississippi River; he served as a private in a war against the 
Indians ; and he was a great reader and student of the few 
books that a backwoodsman in Illinois could command in 
those days. By earnest and constant effort he made himself 
a lawyer. He had served a term in Congress when he met 
Douglas in the great debate in 1858. Lincoln was a man of 
heroic mold. Simple, sincere, fearless, he understood the 
masses of the people, and they gave him sooner or later their 
deepest respect and fullest confidence. It is not too much to 
say that Lincoln saved the LTnion. 

527. The New Administration. — On March 4, 1861, Abra- 
ham Lincoln was inaugurated president of the United States. 
Probably no man ever assumed such an exalted position in 
more trying circumstances. Seven of the states had cast off 
all allegiance to the Union. The country was in confusion. 
There were those who even feared for the life of the president, 



356 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



and for this reason, he had traveled secretly from Philadelphia 
to Washington. 

The tone of his inaugural address seemed ominous to the 
seceded states. While he asserted that slavery in the states 
had nothing to fear from him, at the same time he declared 
secession impossible, and expressed his intention of occupying 
all Federal property in the seceded states and collecting reve- 
nues in their ports. To the South this meant war. 



528. The Question as to Fort Sumter. — The condition 
of affairs at Fort Sumter demanded immediate action. The 

alternative of 




peace or war was 
thus presented : 
For the Federal 
government to 
withdraw the gar- 
rison would be to 
agre e to the 
South's plan of 
peaceable seces- 
sion ; for it to 
send supplies or 
reinforcements 
would mean to 
the South the 
adoption of the policy of coercion, and would be a practical 
declaration of war (see §§ 517, 523). 

A few days after the inauguration of President Lincoln, the 
commissioners appointed by President Davis (§ 521) arrived 
in Washington and made known their mission. The new 
administration refused to receive them, as this would be to 
recognize the Confederate States as a foreign power. How- 
ever, the commissioners were assured by Secretary of State 



Charleston Harbor. 



FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 



357 



Seward, through Judges Nelson and Campbell, of the Supreme 
Court, that Fort Sumter would soon be evacuated. As the 
fulfillment of this promise was delayed, intense anxiety was 
felt as to the course President Lincoln would pursue. 

529. The Fall of Fort Sumter. — South Carolina con- 
sidered both Major Anderson's removal of his troops to Fort 
Sumter and the attempt of the Star of the West to rein- 




Fort Sumter after Bombardment 



force the garrison as hostile acts. Yet she refrained from any 
act of aggression, in the hope of a peaceable solution of the 
difficulty. On April 6 President Lincoln notified Governor 
Pickens, of South Carolina, of his determination to provision 
Fort Sumter.^ By that time a " relief squadron " of eight 
armed vessels and 2400 men had set sail from New York, 

1 Lincoln's cabinet on a final vote stood two (Chase and Blair) in favor of send- 
ing relief to Fort Sumter and^z'^ against. Lincoln then decided to act on his own 
responsibility. 



358 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

and but for a storm at sea would already have reached 
Charleston. No time \vas to be lost. The Confederate au- 
thorities ordered General Beauregard by telegraph to take 
possession of the fort. Major Anderson refused to give it up. 
On April 12 the Confederates opened fire. An incessant 
cannonading was kept up by both sides for thirty-four hours. 
Finally the fort caught fire, and ]\Iajor Anderson surrendered. 
The garrison was allowed to retire with the honors of war. 
While they were firing a salute to the United States Hag, a 
cannon burst, and one soldier was accidentally killed and 
several wounded, — the only blood spilled in this famous fight. 
On April 13, 1S61, Sumter fell. The great war had begun. 

530. Effect of the Fall of Sumter. — /// the Xorth. For 
the first time the Xorth realized that the South was in earnest. 
Those who had hitherto opposed coercion joined with the 
administration. President Lincoln called for 75,000 troops 
to enforce the laws of the United States. Many times that 
number volunteered. The whole North became united. Soon 
afterwards he declared a blockade of all Southern ports and 
suspended the writ of habeas corpus in certain instances. This 
was all extra-constitutional, but the urgency of the occasion 
was held to be sufficient justification. 

/// the South it was felt that the North had begun the war by 
sending troops and provisions to garrison Fort Sumter. All 
opposition was silenced. The invaders must be repelled at 
any cost. President Davis's call for 35,000 volunteers was 
met with as great alacrity as was President Lincoln's at the 
North. 

531. In the Border States. — Lincoln's call for troops to 
force the seceding states back into the Union produced intense 
excitement in the border states of Maryland, Virginia, North 
Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri. The 
governors of most of them refused in emphatic terms to obey 




The "Stars and Bars. 

adopted by the 

Confederate Congress 

March 4, 1S61. 



The "National Flag-," 

adopted by the 

Confederate Congress, 

May I, 1863. 



The "Battle Flag.' 




The "National Flag," 

adopted by the 

Confederate Congress, 

March 4, 1865. 



FLAGS OF CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA, 



FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 359 

the call, and four states — Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, 
and Tennessee — soon joined the Confederacy. Kentucky de- 
clared that she would neither secede nor join in the war against 
her sister states of the South. In Missouri the majority of the 
people were opposed to secession, but the state authorities 
were in favor of joining the Confederacy, and a bitter civil 
strife ensued. By acts of the Confederate Congress both 
Kentucky and Missouri were subsequently admitted into the 
Confederacy, and these two states were represented in both 
Federal and Confederate congresses. Maryland was kept in 
the Union, although a large element of her people sympathized 
with the South. This sympathy was manifested in Baltimore by 
an attack made by citizens on some Massachusetts troops who 
were on their way to Washington. Several were killed on both 
sides, and here, on April 19, was shed the first blood of the war. 

The western portion of Virginia contained many Unionists. 
During the first year of the war, this section of the state was 
occupied by Union armies. Forty-eight western counties and 
a few eastern counties held by Federal troops organized a state 
government, which, claiming to be the true government of 
Virginia, provided for a division of the state. (See Constitu- 
tion, Art. 4, § 3.) Congress ratified this action,^ and in 1863 
admitted the state of West Virginia into the Union. 

By June, 1861, the Confederacy embraced eleven states, not 
including the disputed states of Missouri and Kentucky. The 
capital was removed from Montgomery to Richmond. 

532. Confidence North and South. — The North had about 
three times as many people as the South had. Besides this 
tremendous advantage in numbers, the North was far superior 
in wealth to the South. All the machine shops, factories, 
foundries, were in the North, so that whatever was needed in 

1 During the debate in Congress, Hon. Thaddeus Stevens, of Pennsylvania, said of 
this measure, " We know it is not constitutional, but it is necessary." 



360 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

waging war could soon be provided. Yet the Southern people 
felt confident that the " Stars and Bars " would be victorious. 
True, they recognized the advantages that the North possessed ; 
but they reckoned confidently that the world could not long do 
without Southern cotton. They felt sure that the nations of 
Europe, whose looms they supplied, would not quietly permit 
those looms to be hushed. They especially counted on the 
assistance of France and England.^ It was believed, too, that 
the Southern man was a better soldier than the Northerner, 
because he was accustomed to a rough, outdoor life, and was 
familiar with the use of firearms. The South was full of daring 
and enthusiasm, while the North was firm, resolute, and un- 
daunted. Each was fully confident of ultimate success. 

533. The South's Line of Defense. — East of the AUegha- 
nies there was a strong line of defense extending from Norfolk 
around the northern boundaries of Virginia. At Norfolk and on 
the peninsula guarding the mouth of the James River, was sta- 
tioned an army under Generals Huger and Magruder. In the 
northern part of Virginia were two bodies of troops under Gen- 
erals Joseph E. Johnston and P. G. T. Beauregard. West of the 
mountains the Confederates, under command of General Albert 
Sidney Johnston, had a strong line of defense extending through 
southern Kentucky to Columbus on the Mississippi. Their 
forces occupied Bowling Green and Mill Spring. Fort Henry, 
on the Tennessee, and Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland, a 
distance of twelve miles apart, were two important Confederate 
strongholds. The Mississippi River was strongly fortified from 
its mouth to the northern limit of the Confederate State8. The 
coast line of the seceded states from the Rio Grande to the 
Potomac was strengthened by the erection of new forts. The 
Confederacy was fortified on all sides. (See double page map.) 

1 Foreign nations, while declining to recognize the Confederate States as an inde- 
pendent nation, promptly recognized them as belligerents, thus giving Confederate 
cruisers the right to take refuge in foreign harbors. 



So 127 



117 112 



107 Longitude 102 West 





ro™me^ U>^ITED STATES, 1861 

-^— aCALE OF MILES 



100 200 ,300 



15 Washington 10 



Bradley ^ Poates, Engr't, iLX. 



FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 



361 



534. Northern Plan of Operation. — Against these four 
lines of defense, offensive preparations were made. A blockade 
of Southern ports had been declared. This shut out all com- 
mercial intercourse with the foreign world. Although at the 
time the blockade was declared there were no ships with 




Running the Blockade. 



which to enforce it, a navy was soon organized which effectu- 
ally shut up the South to its own resources. 

Opposed to the Confederate forces in Northern Virginia, 
and threatening an attack on Richmond, was the Army of the 
Potomac, under General Irwin McDowell. Its purpose was to 
break through the line of defense, and capture the Southern 
capital. Northern armies under command of General Fremont 
were concentrated against the line of fortifications west of the 
Cumberland Mountains. 



362 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

A very important part of the Northern plan was the opening 
up of the Mississippi River. Loss of control of this great river 
would not only deprive the South of an important means of 
transportation, but also divide the Confederacy. The attacks 
in these four places were largely independent of each other, 
and were made at first without any unity of plan. We will 
uote them as the campaigns in Virginia, in the West, on the 
Mississippi, and Naval Operations. 

535. In West Virginia. — Three months passed after the 
fall of Fort Sumter before any movement of importance took 
place. The only conflicts were minor ones in western Virginia, 
where small bodies of troops were engaged. 

Both sides tried to secure possession of this portion of Vir- 
ginia. Several battles, mostly unimportant, were fought. The 
Union army was commanded by General George B. McClellan, 
who in this campaign won the name of a successful general. In 
the latter part of the campaign General R. E. Lee commanded 
the Confederate troops. After several engagements, of which the 
Federal success at Rich Mountain was the most important, the 
Union army got complete possession of West Virginia. 

536. On to Richmond ; Battle of Manassas or Bull Run. 

— President Lincoln had made his first call for volunteers for 
three months only. It was felt that some- 
thing must be done. The cry in the North 
was, '' On to Richmond." General Scott, 
the hero of the Mexican War, now com- 
mander-in-chief of the Union forces, on 
July 16 ordered General McDowell with 
his army of 35,000 men to begin the move- 
ment from Washington to Richmond. 
Between the two capitals, about twenty- 
General Beauregard. ^^^ ^^-j^g ^^^^j^ ^^ WashiugtOU and fivC 

miles north of Manassas Junction, flows the little stream of Bull 




FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 



363 



Run, a tributary of the Potomac. South of this stream General 
Beauregard's army of 18,000 men was posted. In the Shenan- 
doah Valley, west of Beauregard, were the forces of General 
J. E. Johnston, confronting the Federal General Patterson, 
whose instructions were to prevent Johnston from joining 
Beauregard. On 
July 18 General 
McDowell came 
upon the Con- 
federates at Bull 
Run, and was 
repulsed in a 
sharply con- 
tested fight. 
Meanwhile Gen- 
eral Johnston 
eluded Patter- 
son, and united 
part of his forces 
with those of 
Beauregard.^ On 
July 21 Mc- 
Dowell crossed 
Bull Run above 
the Confederate 
position, and at- 
tacked his enemy 
upon the left flank. At first the Federals were successful. 
The troops of General Bee of South Carolina were falling 
back in disorder when they encountered General T. J. Jack- 
son's brigade, which at the sound of fighting had hurried 
up from another part of the field. Galloping up to Jackson, 

1 The total Confederate forces at Manassas were probably 30,000 men. About 
half the total forces on each side were actually engaged. 




Map of Seat of War in Virginia. 



364 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

his voice trembling with emotion, Bee exclaimed : " General, 
they are beating us back ! " Jackson, unmoved by the storm 
of bursting shells and whistling bullets, calmly replied : 
" Sir, we will give them the bayonet." Inspired by his 
words, Bee rushed back to his men, and, pointing wdth his 
sword to Jackson, shouted: "Look, there is Jackson standing 
like a stone wall ! Let us determine to die here, and we will 
conquer." His troops rallied, and, taking their position on the 
right of the leader thenceforth to be known by the immortal 
name of " Stonewall Jackson," all swept steadily forw^ard, and 
the Federal onset was checked. A desperate conflict followed, 
the gallant Bee falling at the head of his men. At 3 o'clock 
a detachment of Johnston's army, hurrying from the valley, 
struck the flank of the Federal advance. At the same time a 
charge of the entire Confederate line was ordered. The Union 
troops were unable to hold their ground, but gave way, and 
fled panic-stricken to Washington. 

537. Effect of the Battle. — At the South every one was 
jubilant. Te Deums were echoed from the houses of worship. 
The impression spread that the war was virtually over ; many 
of the volunteers, under this impression, returned to their 
homes. In the North a deep sense of humiliation at first pre- 
vailed, but this feeling soon gave place to a determination to 
wipe out the disgrace with victory. After the first feeling of 
despondency came the conviction that the war was to. be a 
long and desperate struggle. This defeat taught the people of 
the North that they must prepare for a terrible war, such as 
the western continent had never seen. Congress voted to call 
out half a million men. To the North the defeat was a blessing 
in disguise, while it made the South overconfident. 

538. Operations in Missouri. — Governor Jackson, of Mis- 
souri, tried to get his state, in which sentiment was divided, 
to join the Confederacy. His attempt was frustrated by 



FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 



36S 




Nathaniel Lyon, who seized the arsenal at St. Louis to prevent 
its being used to arm the Confederates, and then broke up 
the Confederate encampment of Camp Jackson. The gov- 
ernor called for Confederate volunteers, and placed General 
Sterling Price in command. 
At first the Confederates were 
driven back, but being rein- 
forced by troops from Arkansas 
and Texas, under General Ben 
McCulloch, they met and de- 
feated the Union army at Wil- 
son's Creek, in which engage- 
ment Lyon lost his life. The 
Confederates were gradually 
driven southward, and Missouri 

was held by the Union forces. operations ,n Missouri. 

539. operations on the Coast. — On the sea the South 
was at a disadvantage. She had no war-ships to break up the 
blockade. President Davis, in reprisal for the blockade, granted 
"letters of marque," permitting private vessels sailing under 
the Confederate flag to prey on the commerce of the United 
States. A few Confederate vessels were built during the first 
year, which did immense damage. The two most famous were 
the Sumter and the Nashville. Steamers built for swiftness 
to run the blockade frequently succeeded in carrying out car- 
goes of cotton and bringing back war supplies and other neces- 
sary articles of commerce. During 1861 the Union navy 
captured the forts of Cape Hatteras and Port Royal, S.C. No 
important naval engagement took place during this year. 

540. The Trent Affair The South, as we have already 

seen (§ 532), hoped for aid from England and France. To 
endeavor to secure this aid, Mason and Slidell were sent as 
commissioners to those countries. Running the blockade, 



366 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

they reached Havana, and there embarked on an English mail 
steamer, the Trent, for England. This steamer was^ stopped 
by the United States sloop-of-war San Jacinto, commanded by 
Captain Wilkes, and the commissioners were taken off as prison- 
ers of war. The North was at first delighted with this capture, 
but England angrily demanded the release of the prisoners, 
and began to prepare for war. It seemed that the hope of the 
Confederacy was to be realized, and war between England 
and the United States would follow. But the war was averted. 
The Queen and Prince Albert urged pacific measures, and 
Secretary of State Seward released the prisoners and placed 
them under British protection. The capture was directly con- 
trary to the principle for which the United States had fought 
in 1812, — the right of neutrals to be free from search. Secre- 
tary Seward won an important diplomatic victory in this trans- 
action, for war with England was averted, and England was 
committed against the right of search. 

541. Summary of the First Year of the War. — At Fort Sumter the 
war began. In Virginia the Confederates were successful, and won a bril- 
liant victory at Bull Run. In Missouri the Confederates gained a victory 
at Wilson's Creek, but before the end of the year retired to the extreme 
South, leaving the state in the hands of the Union soldiers. The navy of 
the United States was very successful, both in shutting up the ports, 
making the blockade effectual, and in capturing several important forts. 

EVENTS OF 1862. 

IN THE IV EST. 

The Confederate line of defense west of the Cumberland 
Mountains was under the command of the brilliant Texas 
soldier, Albert Sidney Johnston. This line extended from the 
Cumberland Mountains through Mill Spring to Columbus on 
the Mississippi, and included Fort Henry on the Tennessee 
and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, the forts being within 
twelve miles of each other. Arrayed against this line of 



EVENTS OF 1862. 



367 



defense was General Buell with a force of 100,000 men in central 
Kentucky, and General Grant with 15,000 men at Cairo, 111. 

542. Mill Spring. — In January a division of Buell's army 
undei General George H. Thomas moved against the Confed- 




Operations in the West. 

erate force at Mill Spring. The gallant General Zollicoffer, 
commanding the Confederates, was killed in the engagement, 
and his force was pushed back into Tennessee. 

543. Forts Henry and Donelson. — The Federals had con- 
centrated forces and gunboats at the mouths of the Tennessee 
and the Cumberland Rivers, with the intention of using these 
streams as highways for penetrating Confederate territory. In 
February General Grant embarked on a fleet of gunboats, com- 
manded by Commodore Foote, and moved up the Tennessee 
River. When within a few miles of Fort Henry, Grant's force 
marched out to surround the fort and prevent the escape of 
the garrison. Commodore Foote moved up the river and 
stormed the fort from the water side. The little force of 2500 



368 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

men had two forces aggregating 16,000 men closing in upon it. 
With a few hundred men, the commander of the fort engaged 
the gunboats, while the major portion of his command left the 
fort before Grant appeared, and made their escape to Fort Donel- 
son. Only a small force surrendered, but the loss of the fort was 
a severe blow to the South, as the Tennessee was now open. 

Grant and Foote, with 35,000 men, now moved on Fort Don- 
elson. The fort was defended by 15,000 men under Generals 
Floyd, Pillow, and Buckner. During the first day of the battle 
several gunboats were disabled, Commodore Foote was wounded, 
and the fleet retired from the siege. The land force was also 
driven from an important position, so that a line of retreat was 
opened for the Confederates. Afterward the tide turned against 
the Confederates, and the Federal forces gained a strong posi- 
tion. The officers commanding the fort felt their danger, but 
could not agree upon a course to pursue. Generals Floyd, 
Pillow, and Forrest, taking three or four thousand men with 
them, left the fort during the night and escaped. General 
Buckner asked for a conference to arrange terms of surrender. 
Grant replied that he would grant no terms but " unconditional 
surrender." General Buckner surrendered without terms the 
force of more than 10,000 men that remained in the fort. 

The line of defense was now broken, Nashville was aban- 
doned, and the Confederate forces retired through Tennessee 
into northern Mississippi. 

544. Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing. — General 
Grant moved up the Tennessee River and encamped at Pitts- 
burg Landing, near the boundary line between Mississippi and 
Tennessee. Buell's army was marching to join Grant, and 
together they intended to crush the Confederates. But Gen- 
eral Johnston had no idea of being crushed, and he did not 
wait to be attacked. On the morning of April 6 he fell on 
Grant's army near Shiloh church, and a severe fight ensued. 
The Confederates were everywhere victorious ; they drove the 




GENERAL GRANT. 



EVENTS OF 1862. 



369 




Federal forces in confusion back upon the gunboats lying in 
the river. But at the height of their success, when it seemed 
that Grant's army would 
be captured or forced to 
surrender, late in the after- 
noon General Johnston, 
whose brilliant personal 
leadership had inspired 
the success, was killed. 
Beauregard came from a 
sick bed to take command, 
some confusion ensued, 
and the final blow was 
not struck. During the 
night Buell's army joined 
Grant's, and the Confed- 
erates were outnumbered 
nearly two to one. The 
next morning the combined Federal armies attacked the Con- 
federates, and, after a day of the most stubborn and bloody 
fighting, drove the Confederates from the positions they had 
gained under Johnston. Beauregard retired to Corinth. In 
this battle the Confederates had 40,000 ; the Federals, on the 
second day, about 70,000. 

General Halleck now took charge of the united Federal 
forces of the west, and slowly advanced upon Corinth. Beau- 
regard withdrew from Corinth and retreated southward. 

545. On the Upper Mississippi. — When the Confederates 
retired from Kentucky, Columbus on the Mississippi and Island 
No. 10, two Confederate strongholds, were given up. With 
their withdrawal from Tennessee came the fall of Fort Pillow 
and Memphis. The Mississippi was thus opened as far as 
Vicksburg. Kentucky and Tennessee had fallen into the 
hands of the Union army, and the state officials of Tennessee 



General Albert Sidney Johnston. 



370 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

withdrew from Nashville. President Lincoln appointed Andrew 
Johnson military governor of Tennessee. 

546. Battle of Pea Ridge. — It had been General Johnston's 
plan to have the troops west of the Mississippi unite with his 
forces before any attack was made on the Union army. This 
plan was frustrated by the Union army under General Curtis. 
A bloody engagement at Pea Ridge, or Elk Horn, in Arkansas, 
on March 7, in which the Confederates suffered severe loss, 
including the gallant General Ben McCulloch, destroyed all 
hope of reinforcing Johnston, and left Missouri in the hands 
of the Union army. 

547. Bragg' s Invasion. — After Beauregard evacuated Cor- 
inth he was succeeded by General Bragg, who undertook to 
invade Tennessee and Kentucky and recover them for the 
Confederacy. He occupied Chattanooga, and, aided by Gen- 
eral Kirby Smith, penetrated Kentucky to the vicinity of Louis- 
ville without much opposition. General Smith's command won 
a victory at Richmond, Kentucky. Buell, who had been 
watching Bragg's movements, ran a race with him and got to 
Louisville first. The battle of Perryville was fought between 
the two armies on the 8th of October. The Confederates were 
successful in the fight, but the Union forces were so much 
stronger in numbers that Bragg retreated to Chattanooga, 
carrying with him an immense quantity of arms, ammunition, 
and other supplies which he had captured. The Union army 
took position at Nashville. 

548. luka and Corinth. — When Bragg moved northward 
he left a strong Confederate force under Van Dorn and Price 
to watch Grant, who occupied Corinth. Two of the hottest 
fights of the war occurred between these armies. At luka the 
Confederates lost the day, and their attack on Corinth, though 
at first successful, ended in defeat^ (October 4, 1862). 

1 Colonel W. P. Rogers of the Second Texas led a charge upon the Federal 
intrenchments, and fell with the colors in his hand just as he had leaped upon the 



EVENTS OF 1862. 371 

549. Battle of Murfreesboro. — From Chattanooga the Con- 
federate troops moved toward Nashville, intrenching themselves 
at Murfreesboro with the intention of going into winter quarters. 
But Rosecrans, who had succeeded Buell in command of the 
Union army, decided to attack the Confederates. Bragg moved 
out to meet him. The armies were unequally matched — 
43,000 Federals to 37,000 Confederates — and here, on the last 
day of the year, began one of the bloodiest battles of the war. 
By a singular coincidence each of the generals had formed the 
plan of attacking his opponent's right wing. Bragg was first; 
and his left wing drove back Rosecrans's right, with great loss, 
so as to uncover half of the field, and to permit General Wharton, 
of Texas, with his cavalry force, to get in the rear of the Union 
army, and intercept supply trains, and capture 2000 prisoners. 
The next attack was made on the Union center. Here the 
defense of the Union soldiers was heroic, but the line was 
carried at the point of the bayonet. The remaining wing was 
now charged, but it was in a very advantageous position and 
held its ground. The battle lasted three days, neither side 
gaining a victory. On the night of January 3 (1863), Bragg 
withdrew his forces, and both armies went into winter quarters. 
The loss of the Confederates was 9865 ; of the Federals, 13,249. 

550. On the Lower Mississippi; Capture of New Orleans; 
Sibley in New Mexico. — We have seen (§ 534) that it was an 
important part of the plan of conquering the South that it should 
be deprived of the control of the Mississippi River. We have 
also seen (§ 545) that the upper Mississippi had been opened 
as far as Vicksburg. New Orleans was a place of much im- 
portance to the Confederacy, both because it w^as the great 

embankment and was cheering on his men. The Federal troops, in admiration of his 
bravery, gave his body an honorable burial. General W. L. Cabell, whose desperate 
valor won him the appellation of " Old Tige," was severely wounded on the Federal 
breastworks while charging at the head of an Arkansas brigade. It was at Corinth 
that General Sul Ross, of Texas, obtained the title of " the hero of Corinth." 



3/2 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

metropolis of the South, and because it guarded the mouth of 
the Mississippi. In November, i86i,the United States govern- 
ment decided to fit out an expedition to capture New Orleans. 
This expedition (the most powerful naval force that had ever 
sailed under the United States flag) consisted of nearly fifty 
armed vessels, including war sloops, gunboats, and bomb 
schooners, the bomb schooners being a special force under the 
control of Commodore Porter. The fleet was commanded by 
Captain Farragut. The vessels carried a land force of 15,000 
soldiers under General B. F. Butler to be used as occasion might 
require. New Orleans, hearing early in the year of the mighty 
preparations for its capture, set to work as best she could to 
prepare defenses. On opposite banks, seventy-five miles below 
the city, Forts Jackson and St. Philip were built to guard the 
mouth of the Mississippi. A raft of logs and hulks, lashed 
together with chains, was stretched across the river above the 
forts to bar the passage of vessels. With its utmost efforts the 
city could collect only a small fleet of twelve vessels. Of these 
the only iron-clad war-ship, the Louisia?hT^ from which much was 
hoped, could not be gotten ready in time, and remained tied up to 
the bank during the engagement. Rafts designed to be fired and 
pushed down upon the enemy were also prepared. All the 
Confederate soldiers except one company had been sent to the 
front; the city was defended by a force of 3000 volunteers, 
poorly armed and inexperienced, commanded by Major Lovell. 
On April 18 the mortar boats began shelling the forts; they 
kept up the bombardment six days, firing in all about 20,000 
shells. The forts returned the fire with vigor. Little dama2:e 
was done to either side. Captain Farragut, tired of the futile 
attack upon the forts, resolved to try other measures. A night 
expedition cut the chains which held the great raft, and before 
day on the morning of the 24th the fleet of gunboats attempted 
to proceed up the river. A fierce engagement ensued. The 
flash of cannon was incessant, collisions both accidental and 



EVENTS OF 1862. 373 

intended crippled and sank vessels, burning boats drifted help- 
lessly down stream, and fire-rafts were pushed against the Union 
ships. Many of the Confederate boats were destroyed by the 
enemy, others were destroyed by their crews to keep them from 
falling into the enemy's hands ; only one was saved. The Union 
forces lost many boats, but in the end thirteen of them steamed 
up to New Orleans and demanded the surrender of the city.^ 
The volunteer force, fearing to provoke the bombardment and 
destruction of the city, offered no resistance. General Butler 
came in with his soldiers and established military control. His 
rule was so unjust, tyrannical, and rapacious that President 
Davis issued a proclamation outlawing him. 

The loss of New Orleans was the greatest blow the Confed- 
eracy received during the year. The Mississippi River was 
now almost opened to the Union vessels. The Confederates 
still held strong forts at Vicksburg and Port Hudson, and con- 
tinued to hold them during this year. 

In New Mexico. — In the winter of 186 1-2 a brigade of 
Texans under General H. H. Sibley entered New Mexico, 
defeated the Federal troops under General Canby at Val Verde, 
occupied Santa Fe, and were again successful in the engage- 
ment at Glorietta. Finding his small force and scanty supplies 
inadequate to hold the territory, Sibley retired toward Texas. 
At Peralta a severe engagement took place. The Texans, con- 
tinuing their retreat, returned to San Antonio. 

in the east. 

Operations on the Sea. 

551. The Monitor and the Merrimac. — For the first time 
in the history of the world, vessels covered with iron were to 

1 The Union force had 302 guns, 63 per cent of which were above 32-pound calibre. 
The Confederate forts and vessels had 166 guns, only 30 per cent of which were above 
32-pound calibre. The Union fleet that steamed up the river carried 192 guns, while 
the Confederate fleet had only 40 guns, and 16 of these, the best, were on the 
useless Louisiana. 



374 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



^m 



SOs,^ 



be used in naval warfare. England and France had built iron- 
clads, but they had never been tested in battle. The Confed- 
erates raised the frigate Merrimac, which had been sunk when 
the Federal navy-yard at Norfolk was abandoned, and, after 
plans originated by John M. Brooke,^ refitted it as an iron- 
clad ram. When finished, this vessel, rechristened the Fi'r- 
ginia, presented a very formidable appearance, and was the first 
iron-clad ever tried in battle. Cannon balls rebounded harm- 
less from her sides. On March 8 she left the port, steamed into 

Hampton Roads (at the 
mouth of the James), and 
played havoc with the pow- 
erful Union fleet lying 
there. The CuDiberland 
was sunk, the Congress was 
burnt, and the other ships 
were driven into the shoals 
or put to flight. Conster- 
nation spread in the North, 
where it was feared that 
the new iron-clad would 
attack her great sea-ports. 
Even Washington itself 
would be at the mercy of 
the monster. 

While the J/^rr/;;/^^ was being iron- plated, John Ericsson had 
been busy at New York inventing and constructing a turret ship, 
named the Monitor. It was a small, flat craft, much smaller 
than the Virgi?iia, and very much less exposed to the enemy's 
fire, and carried in a revolving turret two guns so enormous 
that they could shoot heavier balls than had ever been used in 
war. So great was the hurry to get the Monitor to Hampton 
Roads that the vessel had not been tested, and little was known 

1 Brooke was an associate and co-laborer of Commodore Maury. He had invented 
an apparatus for deep-sea soundings (§ 503) 




John M. Brooke. 



EVENTS OF 1862. 



375 



of its real merit. It reached Hampton Roads in the night, and 
took up a position behind the Mitmesota. Early the next morn- 
ing when the Virginia steamed forth to complete her work of 
destruction, she was unexpectedly confronted by her little iron 
opponent. Four hours of desperate combat ensued. When 
the fighting ceased the Mo?iitor was considerably damaged. 
She retired to shallow water where the Virginia could not 
reach her and where she was protected by the guns along 
shore. She was afterwards instructed not to risk another 
engagement with the Virginia, and though the Virginia twice 
afterward appeared in the waters of Hampton Roads, the 
Monitor kept her safe position. When Norfolk was captured 
by the Federals the Virginia was destroyed by the Confederates. 
At the end of the year the J/^;z/V^r foundered off Cape Hatteras. 

This day's battle revolutionized naval warfare. Both the 
Confederate and United States governments began the con- 
struction of iron- 
clad vessels, and 
the navies of all 
foreign powers 
had to be recon- 
structed. 

The Union 
navy was suc- 
cessful in many 
places along the 
coast. At the end of the year only two large sea-port towns on 
the Atlantic coast, Charleston and Wilmington, were preserved 
to the Confederacy. The blockade became more and more 
effectual as the places to be guarded decreased in number. 

Operations in Virginia. 





.ff^^-J 



The Monitor and the Merri 



552. Advance toward Richmond ; the Peninsular Cam- 
paign. — McClellan, who, on account of his successes in West 



376 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Virginia, had been called to take command of the Northern 
army, had spent the winter of 1 86 1-2 in drilling his men and 
preparing for an advance on Richmond. Instead of pursuing 
the plan of the previous year, he decided to sail down the 
Potomac and Chesapeake Bay, and, landing at Fortress Mon- 



ChanibfrsburK^r"-^ ^^j->A^ York ,^ v . 

P E N N S Ty*- L %V a N>XJ 

,"- GicttysburK -C\ 

— ^— -^xairr^'F ' 





Eastern Virginia and the Shenandoah Valley. 



roe, to approach the Confederate capital by way of the penin- 
sula between the James and the York Rivers. General J. E. 
Johnston now commanded the Confederate forces on the 
Peninsula. After a month's siege, early in May, Yorktown 
was evacuated. Johnston withdrew before the superior forces 
of McClellan. At Williamsburg an indecisive engagement 
took place. McClellan continued to advance. The Confed- 



EVENTS OF 1862. 377 

erates abandoned Norfolk and Federal gunboats steamed up 
the James toward Richmond, which was now threatened by 
McClellan from the Peninsula, McDowell from Fredericksburg, 
and by the Union fleet. The batteries of Fort Darling on 
James River, eight miles below Richmond, stopped the advance 
of the Federal gunboats. In order that when a junction with 
McDowell was made, an army might still be between the 
Confederate army and Washington, McClellan threw but a 
part of his forces across the Chickahominy River. While the 
river was in a swollen condition, separating the two divisions, 
Johnston attacked that part of the army which was on the 
south side of the Chickahominy. In this battle, called Seven 
Pines, or Fair Oaks, McClellan barely escaped a complete 
rout. Johnston was severely wounded in the battle, and had 
to withdraw from the command. He was succeeded by Gen- 
eral Robert E. Lee, who commanded the army of Virginia 
until the close of the war. 

553- ** Stonewall'* Jackson's Valley Campaign. — Mc- 
Clellan had expected to be reinforced by McDowell. To 
prevent this, General T. J. Jackson undertook to clear the 
Shenandoah Valley of Federal troops, and even to threaten 
Washington. The campaign was one of the most brilliant in 
history. Concealing his plans even from his own officers, in 
forty days he marched his army of 15,000 men nearly 400 miles, 
attacked and defeated in succession four bodies of troops com- 
manded by Milroy, Banks, Fremont, and Shields, aggregating 
three times his own force. Washington was thought to be in 
danger, and McDowell, instead of reinforcing McClellan, was 
called back to the capital to protect it from Jackson. Having 
secured this result, Jackson left the valley region and had united 
his forces with Lee's before his adversaries knew what he was 
about. Meanwhile, General J. E. B. Stuart had made his 
famous cavalry ride around McClellan's army, doing much 



378 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



damage and greatly interfering with that commander's plans, 
besides learning the exact position of his troops. 



554. The Seven Days* Battles. — Lee now determined to 
strike that part of McClellan's army which was still north of 
the Chickahominy. Keeping part of his forces near Richmond 
to defend the city, he threw a body of troops across the Chicka- 
hominy to attack the 
Federal position at 
Mechanicsville, while 
Stonewall Jackson, from 
the Shenandoah Valley, 
at the same time fell 
upon the enemy's flank. 
McClellan was driven 
from his intrenchments 
(June 26). At Gaines's 
Mill, on the next day, 
Lee again attacked him 
and won a brilliant vic- 
tory. Discouraged by 
defeat, and cut off from 
his base of supplies on 
the York River, Mc- 




The Seven Days' Battles. 

Clellan now withdrew all his forces to the south side of the 
Chickahominy, and began a retrograde movement toward the 
shelter of the Union gunboats on the James River, where a 
new base of supplies could be established. His retreating 
columns were assailed by the Confederates on successive 
days at Savage Station, Frazer's Farm, and White Oak 
Swamp, suffering heavy loss. At Malvern Hill Lee's victo- 
rious troops were checked. But during the night McClellan 
continued his retreat, finally reaching the protection of the 
Federal gunboats at Harrison's Landing on the James. Here 




GENERAL LEE. 



EVENTS OF 1S62. 379 

he began to reorganize his discomfited forces. For seven 
days there had been incessant fighting. McClellan's troops 
were recalled to Washington, and the Peninsular Campaign 
ended in failure. (Map, p. 376.) 

555- Pope in Command; Second Battle of Manassas. — 
The forces around Washington were organized and united under 
the name of the Army of Virginia, and General John Pope, w ho 
had won considerable reputation in the capture of Island No. 10 
on the Mississippi, was put in command. McClellan's forces 
were ordered to unite with him. Pope chose the overland 
route against Richmond. While McClellan was withdrawing 
his forces and Lee was guarding Richmond from the Peninsula, 
Jackson was sent to check Pope. He defeated Pope's right 
wing at Cedar Mountain. As McClellan's command joined 
Pope, Lee's army was drawn forward to resist the united enemy. 
On August 30 Lee and Jackson attacked the combined Federal 
forces at the old battle-ground of Bull Run. In this second 
battle of Manassas Pope's army was utterly defeated, and after 
an ineffectual stand at Chantilly (September i) took refuge 
within the fortifications of Washington. The combined Union 
forces around Washington were again placed in command of 
McClellan. 

556. First Invasion of the North ; Battle of Antietam 
or Sharpsburg. — Lee determined to invade the North. He 
crossed into Maryland and occupied Frederick City, north of 
Washington, threatening both Baltimore and Philadelphia. 
McClellan moved forward to intercept his march and Lee 
turned to the northwest. On the way Jackson captured 
Harper's Ferry with 12.000 Federal troops and large military 
stores. McClellan hastened after Lee and overtook him at 
Sharpsburg on Antietam Creek. Here on September 17 was 
fought one of the bloodiest battles of the war. Lee's army 
numbered about 40,000 and McClellan's more than twice as 



3 So HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

many. Each side lost over 10,000 men without either gaining 
the victory. Lee, unable to defeat McClellan, who was con- 
tinually receiving reenforcements, had to abandon his invasion 
of the North, and to retire across the Potomac into West 
Virginia. The Federal government, again dissatisfied with 
McClellan, put General Ambrose E. Burnside in command of 
the Army of the Potomac. 

557. Battle of Fredericksburg. — Burnside chose to march 
upon Richmond by way of Fredericksburg, hoping to reach 
that place before Lee. His army now numbered about 125,000, 
about twice as many men as Lee had. Crossing the Rappahan- 
nock, he found that Lee had fortified himself at Fredericksburg. 
The Federal army attacked (December 13) and were repulsed 
with heavy loss,^ — over 12,000 men, more than twice as many 
as the Confederates lost. Burnside withdrew across the Rap- 
pahannock and was superseded by General Joe Hooker. The 
two armies lay facing each other without any engagement until 
spring. 

558. Emancipation Proclamation. — President Lincoln had 
announced that the war was not against slavery, but to 
maintain the Union. Accordingly when the Union generals 
conquered slave territory and wished to declare the slaves 
therein free, he forbade them. Slaves were becoming more 
and more useful to the Confederates as teamsters, builders of 
earth-works, etc. General Butler declared that they were sub- 
ject to capture as any other property, and accordingly claimed 
them as " contraband of war." 

The president had recommended to Congress to appropriate 
money to purchase the slaves of loyal masters. But the con- 
gressmen from the slave states which had not seceded opposed 
this policy and it was not adopted. At last Lincoln decided 

1 Official estimate of the Federal loss is 12,410 ; of the Confederate loss, 11,172. 



EVENTS OF 1862. 381 

that slavery must be abolished. He reached this conclusion 
early in the year 1S62, but did not announce it until September. 
The Confederates had been very successful in Virginia, and 
such a proclamation would create the impression that the 
North was in a critical condition and grasping at straws. The 
battle of Antietam, though a drawn battle, was claimed as a 
Union victory because Lee withdrew from Maryland. Lincoln 
seized the opportunity. He issued a preliminary proclamation 
declaring that after January i, 1S63, all the slaves in that part 
of the Union then in arms against the United States government 
would be set free. No attention was paid to the announcement, 
and accordingly on January i, 1863, he issued the famous 
Proclamation of Emancipation. This proclamation did not apply 
to the Union states, nor to those portions of the Confederacy 
which were then under Federal control (§§ 534, 544, 545). 

559. Summary of Events of 1862. — In the East. The Army of the 
Potomac, a large and thoroughly drilled force, was put under the command 
of General McCIellan. He attempted to reach Richmond from the south- 
east by way of the Peninsula. Washington was protected meanwhile by an 
army under McDowell. Johnston, the Confederate leader, slowly withdrew 
towards Richmond. He was wounded at Seven Pines, and was succeeded 
by General R. E. Lee. To prevent McCIellan from receiving assistance 
from McDowell, Jackson was sent up the Shenandoah Valley. 

McDowell was thus forced to retire to Washington to protect that city. 
Jackson then quickly rejoined Lee and aided him in the Seven Days' Battles. 
McCIellan was forced to abandon his advance on Richmond. 

The authorities at Washington, dissatisfied with McCIellan, ordered him 
to unite his forces with those of Pope, who had been given charge of the 
army. Lee sent Jackson against Pope's army, which was defeated by him 
at Cedar Mountain. In the Second Battle of Manassas Pope's army 
was completely overthrown. Lee seized the opportunity to invade the 
North. McCIellan was sent after him, and after the battle of Sharpsburg, or 
Antietam, Lee withdrew into northwest Virginia to recruit his army. The 
Union army was then given to Burnside, who endeavored to place his army 
between Lee and Richmond. At Fredericksburg he found himself confronted 
by the Southern army and was defeated. He was superseded by General 
Hooker. Thus three campaigns against Richmond ended in failure. 



382 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

In the West. The Confederates were driven out of Kentucky, and after 
the capture of Fort Donelson by Grant, Tennessee also was lost to them. 
General A. S. Johnston was killed at Shiloh at the moment of victory : 
Beauregard, who succeeded him, retreated south to Corinth. Followed by 
the Union army he abandoned that place. The Southern army was given 
to Bragg, who invaded Kentucky, and managed to elude Buell and escape 
safely back to Chattanooga. The Union army was given to General 
Rosecrans. and on the last day of the year the two armies met in the bloody 
and indecisive battle of Murfreesboro. 

Union forces gained possession of the Mississippi above Vicksburg, and 
captured the city of New Orleans. This was also a year of great naval 
battles. The fight between the Monitor and the Merrimac revolutionized 
naval warfare, introducing iron-clad war-vessels. 

Charleston, Wilmington, and Mobile were the only seaboard towns still 
held by the Confederacy. 

EVENTS OF 1863. 

IN THE EAST. 

560. Chancellorsville. — In the spring of 1S63 General 
Hooker, — "Fighting Joe Hooker," as he was called, — with 
more than 130,000^ men, prepared to move against Lee, whose 
army numbered about 53,000. The Federal commander sent 
Averill with 3000 cavalry to dislodge Lee's pickets on the 
Rappahannock, but they were driven back by 800 of Stuart's 
cavalry under Fitzhugh Lee. Here the gallant Pelham fell. 

Hooker's plan of attack at Chancellorsville was well con- 
ceived. He threw forward 50,000 men under General Sedg- 
wick against Lee's right as a feint, while he massed the greater 
part of his army, over 73,000 men, on his own right to attack 
and crush the Confederate left. He sent 10,000 cavalry around 
to the rear of Lee's army to cut off his communications and head 
off retreats. 

Lee divined Hooker's plan and out-mananivred him at every 
point. He at once advanced his forces and threw Hooker on 

1 On April 30 Hooker had 133,708 "present, equipped for duty" ; Lee had 53,303 
present for duty at Chancellorsville. 



384 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

army in triumph. Sedgwick, who was thirteen miles away 
when the battle began, moved up during the night with 30,000 
men, and on the morning of the 3d was fighting his way, in 
spite of stubborn resistance, to the Confederate rear. Lee 
stopped Stuart's pursuit of Hooker and, turning his attention 
to Sedgwick, on May 4th, near nightfall, defeated and drove 
him back to the river. Sedgwick retreated across the river 
during the night. 

Hooker was saved by a storm from further attack, and stole 
away under cover of night on the 5th. Hooker lost at Chan- 
cellorsville 17,197. Lee's loss was 10,281. This superb vic- 
tory put Lee in the front rank of military commanders. 

561. Lee's Second Invasion of the North. — After his bril- 
liant victories around Chancellorsville, Lee determined to 
traifsfer the seat of war to Northern soil. Leaving General 
A. P. Hill with a corps to watch Hooker, whose great army was 
too well intrenched on Stafford Heights to be attacked without 
danger of disaster, Lee moved Northward. Hooker withdrew 
Northward also, keeping between the Confederates and Wash- 
ington, and Hill joined in the Northward movement. On the 
march Stuart defeated a combined infantry and cavalry force 
under Pleasanton at Beverly's Ford, June 9, and Ewell routed 
Milroy at Winchester, capturing 4000 prisoners, June 14-15, 
thus clearing the Shenandoah Valley. With his army of 
70,000, Lee hurried on, passing west of the mountains, and 
entered Pennsylvania. Harrisburg and Philadelphia were 
threatened. Consternation spread throughout the North. 

562. Battle of Gettysburg. — Just on the eve of the meet- 
ing of the two armies General Hooker was superseded by 
General George G. Meade, who commanded the Union forces 
in the great battle which followed. Meade determined, in pur- 
suance of Hooker's plans, to move through Maryland into 
Pennsylvania and cause a battle by threatening Lee's com- 



EVENTS OF 1863. 



385 




General Meade 



munications. Lee, apprehending his purpose, turned and began 
to concentrate his army at Gettysburg. Here, on July i, 
the great battle began; 26,000 Confederates, two-thirds of 
Ewell's corps and two-thirds 
of A. P. Hill's, with artillery, 
defeated and drove back with 
heavy loss 23,000 Federals, 
— 20,000 infantry under Rey- 
nolds, who was killed in the 
engagement, and 3000 cav- 
alry under Buford. The 
Confederates captured 5000 
prisoners. Pursuit of the 
Federals was not pressed, 
and, the main body of their 
army coming up during the 
night and next morning, they intrenched themselves on 
Cemetery Ridge and Culp's Hill (see map, p. 386). As the 
Confederate army came up they took position on Seminary 
Ridge. On the second day of the battle (July 2), in spite of 
unexpected delay in making the attack, the Confederates drove 
the Federals under General Sickles, Hood's division leading 
the onset, from a strong position on the right, and Ewell 
gained and kept a foothold on Culp's Hill. At one time 
during the day Round Top was won and Little Round Top 
almost captured by the Confederates, but, after furious fighting, 
they were given up. The Federal loss on the second day was 
about 10,000 men. The Federals at Gettysburg had the advan- 
tage of superior numbers, strong intrenchments on heights diffi- 
cult of access, and position on interior lines (see map, p. 386). 
General Lee, encouraged by the success of the first and 
second days, determined to press the attack on the morning of 
the third. Ewell was to assail the Federal right on Culp's Hill, 
while Longstreet, aided by Hill, was to storm the left center, 



386 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



commanded by Hancock, on Cemetery Ridge. Ewell attacked 
in the morning, and, in spite of heroic efforts, failed to carry 
Gulp's Hill, and was finally compelled to retire. After several 
hours' delay, at i p.m., the Confederate artillery on the right 
opened fire. The Federals responded, and for two hours nearly 
300 cannon " volleyed and thundered." At last the cannon- 
ading ceased and the long, magnificent 
line of Confederates m'oved forward and 
stormed Cemetery Ridge. Over the 
ridge behind which they had lain pro- 
tected during the artillery duel, down the 
slope and up the heights, three-quarters 
of a mile, less than 14,000 heroes in 
gray^ charged an army of 100,000 men. 
At 1100 yards the Federal cannon reo- 
pened fire, and the shot cut windrows 

The Con- 




through the advancing lines. 



federates closed up and pressed on. 
The advance reached the Federal works, captured their guns, 
and planted the Confederate flag on the outer stone wall ; but 
they were not supported, and under a terrific fire from the 
front and both flanks they went back, the 14,000 now but 7000. 
The charge had failed. In heroic daring it has never been sur- 
passed. " It is all my fault," said the great-hearted Lee, as, 
after the charge, he rallied his shattered troops, thus taking 
upon himself the shortcomings of his lieutenants. He had 
intended that Ewell and Longstreet should attack at the same 
time, early in the morning, and had expected Longstreet to lead 
his entire corps and so much of Hill's corps as he might need, 
nearly 40,000 men in all, in the charge on Cemetery Ridge. 
Ewell, knowing nothing of the delay, attacked in the morning. 

1" Pickett's division of 5000 men, with Wilcox's brigade of 1200 on the right, 
Heth's and Pender's divisions together numbering 700c on the left." — Fitzhugh Lee's 
" Life of R. E, Lee," pp. 287, 288, and 297. 



EVENTS OF 1863. 387 

The Federals were reinforced and foiled him, and Longstreet 
attacked with a little more than one-third of the forces under 
his command in the afternoon. Lee was also greatly embar- 
rassed by the absence, until the evening of the second day, of 
Stuart and his cavalry. 

This battle was the turning-point in the war. The invincible 
army of northern Virginia, though not defeated, was checked. 
The 20,000 brave veterans who were lost at Gettysburg could 
not be replaced. Courage at the North revived, and the South 
began to grow weary of the unequal contest. 

Meade had about 100,000 men at Gettysburg ; Lee about 
70,000. The Federal loss was 23,003 ; the Confederate loss, 
20,451. Lee, after waiting a day for an attack from Meade, 
began to withdraw to the Potomac and Virginia. He was fol- 
lowed — at a safe distance — by the Union army as far as the 
Rapidan. Here the two armies remained during the rest of the 
year, and this was their position when Grant assumed command 
the following year. 

ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 

563. Fall of Vicksburg. — While the important events, the 
battle of Chancellorsville and the invasion of the North, were 
occupying the attention of the forces in the East, Grant made 
several attempts to gain possession of Vicksburg, all of which 
were unsuccessful. 

Van Dorn made a daring raid upon Grant's base of supplies 
at Holly Springs, destroyed his stores, and compelled him to 
retreat. Sherman, whom Grant sent from Memphis with 
32,000 men to surprise Vicksburg, was defeated with heavy 
loss at Chickasaw Bayou, five miles from Vicksburg, by a part 
of Pemberton's army under General S. D. Lee. Grant then 
attempted without success to change the course of the Missis- 
sippi River by digging a canal across a great bend. This 
would have left Vicksburg off of the Mississippi River. Finally 



338 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



he hit upon a plan. By a daring movement the gunboats were 
run past the city, and Grant himself moved down the west side 
of the river, and crossed the Mississippi in his gunboats. He 
pushed on to Jackson, Mississippi, thus preventing General J. 

E. Johnston, who 
had general com- 
mand of the depart- 
ment, from coming 
to the aid of Vicks- 
burg. Pemberton, 
who commanded 
the Confederate 
army near Vicks- 
burg, was defeated 
at Champion Hills 
and Big Black, and, 
contrary to John- 
ston's order, re- 
treated within his 
fortifications. 
Grant, after two un- 
successful attacks, 
determined to lay 
siege to the place and starve the people into surrender. After 
seven weeks' siege, the people being almost famished, Pember- 
ton, seeing no chance of success or relief, surrendered to General 
Grant. The surrender of Vicksburg was a heavy blow to the 
Confederacy. Over 30,000 prisoners were captured; large 
stores of firearms and ammunition, so much needed by the 
South, fell into the hands of the Federals ; the Mississippi was 
practically in the hands of the Union army. Vicksburg fell on 
the very day that Lee began his retreat from Pennsylvania, 
July 4, the anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. 
Five days later Port Hudson surrendered to General Banks's 



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EVENTS OF 1863. 389 

army, and the control of the Mississippi passed into the hands 
of the Federal government. The Confederacy was thus divided 
by Federal armies, and assistance from beyond the Mississippi 

was cut off.^ 

564. On the Coast of Texas. — The efforts of the Union 
forces to gain a foothold on the soil of Texas were unsuccess- 
ful until the latter part of 1863. Galveston was occupied by 
them during the summer of 1862, but General Magruder 
resolved to recapture it for the Confederacy. He fitted out 
two small steamers with bulwarks of cotton and with cannon, 
and sent them against the Union fleet in the harbor. At the 
same time he landed a small force of troops and took posses- 
sion of the city January i, 1863. The attack on the Union 
ships was begun immediately. One of the Union ships was 
captured, another blown up, and the remaining ones steamed 
away. The expedition was brilliantly successful. 

After the capture of Port Hudson, Banks sent a detachment, 
consisting of four gunboats and transports, bearing a force esti- 
mated at from 5000 to 10,000, to take Sabine Pass and invade 
Texas from the south. The fort at the Pass was defended by 
forty-two men under Lieutenant Dick Bowling. Soon two of 
the vessels were disabled by the fire from the fort, and the 
other two, v/ith the transports, retired from the siege. One 
hundred and fifty prisoners were taken by Lieutenant Bowling 
and his heroic band.^ 

IN THE WEST. 

565. Battle of Chickamauga. — After the battle of Mur- 
freesboro, which had begun on the last day of 1862, and lasted 

1 General John Morgan, with 4000 Confederate cavalry, made a raid in July, 
1863, through Tennessee and Kentucky, into Indiana and Ohio, causing great excite- 
ment. He was finally captured and imprisoned, but escaped soon after. 

2 " The success of the single company which garrisoned this earthwork is without 
parallel in ancient or modern war." — Jefferson Davis. 



390 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



through the first two days of 1863, the armies had long re- 
mained inactive. The Confederate General Bragg had with- 
drawn his forces, leaving the Union army under Rosecrans in 
possession of Murfreesboro. For six months nothing was done 
on either side. In June General Rosecrans began a forward 
movement, Bragg retiring before him. Chattanooga thus fell 
into the hands of the Union army. Bragg had halted at 
Chickamauga, in northwest Georgia, twelve miles from Chat- 
tanooga. Here he was reinforced by troops from Lee's army, 
under General Longstreet, and by Johnston from Mississippi. 

On September 19 an attack 
was begun by the Union 
army. The result of the first 
day's battle was indecisive. 
On the second day Rose- 
crans's forces were divided, 
and his right wing was com- 
pletely routed and retreated 
to Chattanooga. The left 
wing, under General George 
H. Thomas, the " Rock of 
Chickamauga," made a mag- 
nificent resistance, and saved 
the Union army from over- 
Thomas, who now succeeded Rosecrans, 




General Thomas 



whelmine: defeat. 



retreated to Chattanooga, and Bragg began a siege of that place. 



566. Siege of Chattanooga. — Thomas's army was com- 
pletely shut off from outside communications, and his capture 
seemed certain. Bragg had his forces strongly posted in the 
apparently impregnable positions on Lookout Mountain and 
Missionary Ridge. So sure was he of his success that he sent 
part of his forces, under Longstreet, against Burnside, who 
was at Knoxville. After the capture of Vicksburg Grant was 



EVENTS OF 1863. 391 

put in charge of all the armies in the West. He collected 
forces from all the armies, and went to the relief of Chatta- 
nooga. General Hooker also brought forces from the Army of 
the Potomac. 

567. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — In order 
to relieve Chattanooga, Grant determined to take the Con- 
federate positions on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. 
To take Bragg's position, half a mile up the mountain, " above 
the clouds," seemed impossible. On November 24 Lookout 
Mountain was stormed ; on the following day the Confederate 
forces were driven from Missionary Ridge. Bragg retreated 
to Dalton, Ga., and the command of the army was turned over 
to General Johnston. Equally unsuccessful was General Long- 
street against Burnside. His attack on Knoxville was dis- 
astrously repulsed. General Grant hastened to Burnside's 
assistance, and Longstreet crossed into Virginia and rejoined 
Lee. 

568. Conscription Act. — The war had lasted so long that it 
became necessary to force men into service on both sides by Con- 
scription Acts. Conscription was bitterly opposed in some parts 
of the North where opposition to the war was strong. The 
opposition culminated in what is known as the D?'aft Riot in 
New York City. This riot began on July 13, and for three 
days the city was in the hands of the mob. Their hatred 
of negroes was manifested by attacks upon them and by the 
burning of an orphan asylum for colored children. Governor 
Seymour tried to pacify the mob, but was unable to do so. 
About 100 people were killed. Finally, the police, assisted by 
troops, quelled the disturbance, and order was restored. The 
drafting of soldiers was a failure, and its only success lay in 
encouraging voluntary enlistment. The spirit of opposition to 
the war was so strong in the North that in August President 



392 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus. The successes 
at Vicksburg and Gettysburg tended, however, to arrest dis- 
affection and create sentiment in favor of the administration 
policy. 

569. West Virginia. — In June of this year West Virginia 
was admitted into the Union (see § 531). 

570. Summary of Events of 1863. — The year 1S63 was the turning 
pomt of the war. The Mississippi had completely fallen into the hands of 
the United States by the capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson. 

In the East, Hooker had commenced operations by trying to march 
around the west of Fredericksburg and upon Richmond. He met disastrous 
defeat at Chancellorsville. Lee then invaded the North, reaching south 
Pennsylvania. Hooker followed him until superseded by Meade. The 
latter stationed himself in the Southern general's path at Gettysburg and 
Lee could not dislodge him. This forced the abandonment of the Northern 
invasion. 

In the West, Rosecrans had marched upon Bragg, who thereupon 
evacuated Chattanooga. He was overtaken, but turned and defeated 
Rosecrans at Chickamauga. The Union army retreated to Chattanooga 
and was closely besieged. Their ultimate surrender seemed certain. Grant, 
who had on July 4 captured Vicksburg. came to Thomas's relief. Sher- 
man and Hooker also brought assistance. Bragg was defeated and 
resigned his command. His army was given to General J. E. Johnston. 

The same day that Lee began his retreat from Pennsylvania, Vicksburg 
surrendered to Grant. Thenceforth the South was wholly on the defensive, 
and was gradually exhausting her strength. 

EVENTS OF 1864. 

571. Earlier Movements. — The two important campaigns 
of 1864 did not begin till May. Up to this time some less 
important movements must engage our attention. 

Florida was invaded by a Union army to reclaim it for the 
Union, but the Federals were defeated at Ocean Pond. 

General Sherman advanced from Vicksburg, Miss., to cap- 
ture Mobile. He tore up railroad and telegraph communica- 



EVENTS OF 1864. 393 

tions around Meridian, and thus prevented any assistance to 
the Southern army from the west, and cut off the Confederate 
army in northern Georgia from a good basis of suppHes. The 
cavalry which he expected to assist him was met and defeated 
by Getieral Forrest, Sherman, after inflicting considerable 
damage, returned to Vicksburg. Forrest, after driving the 
Union cavalry back to Memphis, continued his raid. He 
attacked Paducah, Ky., but was unsuccessful. He turned 
southward into Tennessee and captured Fort Pillow, manned 
principally by negro troops. Most of them were killed. The 
Red River expedition under General Banks resulted in the com- 
plete failure of the Federals. This expedition was to capture 
Shreveport and conquer the rest of Louisiana. Banks was so 
thoroughly beaten by an inferior force under General Dick 
Taylor at Mansfield (Sabine Cross Roads) and Pleasant Hill 
that he was glad to get back to New Orleans. The gunboats 
which accompanied Banks's army were barely rescued. Gen- 
eral Kirby Smith, who commanded the Trans-Mississippi 
department, then moved across northwest Louisiana and, 
though checked at Jenkins Ferry, compelled the Federal 
General Steele to retreat to Little Rock. 

572. Grant Made Lieutenant-GeneraL — This was the 
situation of affairs when Grant completed his plans for the 
campaign which was to close the war. His uniform successes 
in the West during 1S63 had won the confidence of the Federal 
authorities. In the spring of 1S64 the office of Lieutenant- 
General was revived and given to Grant. All the Union forces 
in America, amounting to nearly one million men, were put 
under his direction. The total Confederate forces numbered 
at this time less than one-third of the Union forces in the field. 
Besides, the Confederacy had no means of increasing its army. 
The Laiion, by its bounty system, easily secured recruits, draw- 
ing soldiers even from Europe. 



394 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

573. Grant's Plan. — Two movements were planned against 
the Confederacy, — the capture of Atlanta and the capture of 
Richmond. Grant left Sherman to march against Atlanta, 
while he himself assumed command of the Army of the Potomac. 
The troops on both sides were principally massed into two 
large armies. The one under Sherman, numbering 100,000 
men, was to oppose the Confederates under J. E. Johnston with 
70,000 troops. Grant's immense army of 175,000 soldiers was 
to "hammer" away at Lee's army of about one-third the size. 
The movements were to be simultaneous and continuous, so as 
to prevent Johnston and Lee from rendering aid to each other. 
During the first week of May both Sherman and Grant began 
their forward movements. Let us first follow Grant's attack on 
Richmond. 

IN' THE EAST. 

574. Grant's Plans against Richmond. — In his movement 
against the Confederate capital Grant chose the direct overland 
route. For the purpose he took 100,000 men, leaving a reserve 
force of 40,000 upon which to draw. He also organized two 
minor expeditions, — one under General Butler and another 
under Generals Crook and Sigel. Butler was sent with 30,000 
troops to ascend the James River, attack Petersburg, and 
threaten Richmond from the south. Crook and Sigel were 
sent to capture Lynchburg and threaten the Confederate capi- 
tal from the west. (See map, p. 376.) 

575. Lee versus Grant. — Grant began his forward move- 
ment on the 5th of May, and entered the Wilderness^ south of 

1 At a critical moment in the battle of the Wilderness, Soo Texans imder General 
Gregg were about to charge, when they noticed General Lee in their van. " We 
won't go unless you go back," they shouted ; a soldier stepped forward, seized ■' Old 
Traveller's " rein, and led him to the rear. General Gregg came up and urged Lee 
to comply with the wishes of his men. The great commander yielded, and the Texans 
won the charge, with one-half their number wounded or slain. 



EVENTS OF 1864. 395 

the Rapidan. Lee advanced to meet him, and attempted 
during the succeeding month, with consummate skill, to 
thwart the forward movement of Granu On May 5 and 6 
the bloody battles in the Wilderness were fought. Grant 
continued to force Lee slowly back by sending troops around 
his flank. Beginning on the 9th, two days' severe and bloody 
encounters took place at Spottsylvania Court-house. Grant 
continued his movement around Lee's right till the latter had to 
fall back to his intrenchments around Richmond. He attacked 
the Confederates at Cold Harbor, but was severely beaten, and 
gave up the attempt to storm Lee's position. There had been 
continuous fighting for a month, and yet Grant had been un- 
able to break through Lee's line. On the contrary, Lee could 
not hope to drive the Union army back, but could only act 
on the defensive. The loss on both sides had been terrible. 
During the march from the Rapidan to the fortifications 
around Richmond the Union loss was not less than 60,000 
men, equal in number to Lee's entire army. The Confederates 
had also lost a large number, a loss deeply felt, for it was 
growing more and more difficult to replace the men. 

576. Butler's Movements. — Butler had made his way up 
the James River and landed below Petersburg on the peninsula 
formed by the confluence of the James and the Appomattox 
Rivers. Beauregard erected fortifications across the peninsula 
from river to river, and thus effectually " bottled up " Butler 
at Bermuda Hundreds on the peninsula. 

577. The Movement against Lynchburg ; Early and Sheri- 
dan in the Valley. — General Sigel was met and defeated by 
General Breckinridge at Newmarket.^ Sigel's command was 
then given to Hunter, who, with Crook's forces, was driven from 
the Shenandoah Valley by General Early. Lee, in the hope of 

1 Two hundred cadets from the Virginia Military Institute fought like veterans 
under Breckinridge in this battle. 



396 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

distracting Grant's attention from Richmond, had sent General 
Early through the Shenandoah Valley into Maryland to threaten 
Washington. Early, after tiirning aside to save Lynchburg, 
resumed his original plan and marched northward into Mar}'- 
land. He was detained at Monocacy. where he met and routed 
the Federal forces which opposed him. By the time he reached 
Washington he found it too strong for him to capture. He 
captured provisions for the army and began his return to Lee. 
As soon as Grant heard of the danger in which Washington 
stood he despatched General Sheridan against General Early. 
On the 19th of September Early was defeated at Winchester. 
A month later Early attacked the Federal forces during 
Sheridan's absence and routed them. Sheridan met his tiee- 
ing forces, turned them, and routed the Confederates. Grant 
had ordered Sheridan to lay waste the beautiful Shenandoah 
Valley. No militar}- necessity could justify such wanton and 
wholesale destruction of private property as Sheridan's men 
inflicted. 

578. Grant's Chang^e of Base. — Finding that he would 
be unable to take the fortitications around Richmond, Grant 
determined to change the basis of his operations to the James 
River. He moved his army to this new position, thus threaten- 
ing the fortitications around Petersburg, which is twenty miles 
south of Richmond. Lee had a continuous line of fortifications 
about thirty miles in length surrounding Petersburg and Rich- 
mond. Lee's army still numbered about 60,000, while Grant 
was besieging him with over twice that number. By pushing 
towards the southwest Grant forced Lee to lengthen this line 
of fortifications, and thus weaken his line of defense. Lee 
lacked forces to man his fortifications. 

579. The Petersburg Mine. — On July 2>o. much to the sur- 
prise of the Confederates, a portion of the breastworks around 
Petersburg was hurled into the air. and a break made in the 



EVENTS OF 1864. 



397 



line of defense. Into this breach in the fortifications, making 
a crater in the ground. Union troops were poured. They but 
rushed to a slaughter-pit, for over 4000 lost their lives, and no 
entrance into Petersburg was made. This attempt to blow up 
the fortitications by exploding four tons of gunpowder under 
tliem resulted disastrously to the Federals, and did little dam- 
age to the Confederates. 

Grant saw that he could not take the fortitications by storm, 
and he began the siege, which lasted nine months. During 
the remainder of the year 1S64 nothing more of importance 
occurred in the East. 



.'.V THE irEST. 

580. Sherman and Johnston. — About the same time that 
Grant crossed the Rapidan and began his advance upon Lee 
Sherman commenced his march to Atlanta. He was opposed 
by Johnston with a force 
little more than half as 
large as his own. No 
regular engagement took 
place. Johnston adopted 
the " Fabian policy " of 
retreating till a favorable 
moment for resistance 
should occur. This policy 
was a successful one, and 
Sherman found his march 
to Atlanta very difficult. .^ 

He continually attempted 
to pass around Johnston's 
army, thus compelling him 
to fall back to a new posi- 
tion. Various encounters took place between the two armies, 
but no set battle was fought. Johnston would select his ground 




General Sherman. 



398 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



and at an opportune moment would strike the advancing hosts. 
He made a stand at Resaca. Again, on May 25, 26, and 27, 
the armies encountered each other near Dallas. The most 
severe encounter was at Kenesaw Mountain. Here Sherman's 
assault was severely repulsed. Gradually the wily Confederate 
chieftain fell back to his fortifications around Atlanta. At 

last he determined to engage 
the forces of Sherman. Sher- 
man's loss had been consider- 
ably more than Johnston's. 

581. Hood in Command. — 

At this critical point in the cam- 
paign Johnston was superseded 
by General John B. Hood. In- 
stead of awaiting the attack, as 
Johnston had intended. Hood 
determined to make an attack 
himself. Hood's forces were 
inferior in numbers to Sher- 
man's, and his repeated assaults 
were severely repulsed. The Confederates could ill afford the 
loss they suffered. On the last day of August Hood was 
forced to evacuate the city, and on the 2d of September it fell 
into the hands of General Sherman. The loss of Atlanta was 
a heavy blow to the Confederacy. Here were stationed their 
machine shops and stores of war munitions. 

582. Hood in Tennessee. — After his evacuation of Atlanta 
Hood moved northward, hoping to draw Sherman after him. 
The Union army followed a short distance. Then a detachment 
under General Thomas, equal in number to Hood's depleted 
army, was sent after the Confederates. These forces Hood 
met at Franklin and drove from the field. Next he besieged 
Thomas at Nashville. On December 15 and 16 Thomas, 




General J. E. Johnston. 



EVENTS OF 1864. 



399 



whose army now greatly outnumbered Hood's, came out and 
gave him battle and utterly defeated the Confederate army. 
One of the two strong Confederate armies was broken up. It 
never was completely reunited. 

583. Sherman's March to the Sea. — After sending Thomas 
after Hood, Sherman returned to Atlanta. This place he 
burned. He then set out upon his march to the sea. His 
army, numbering 60,000 men, cut a swath through Georgia 
sixty miles wide. No efficient force lay before — nothing to 
stop him in his forward march. He cut loose from all commu- 
nications with the North, and for a month nothing was heard 
from him. His army carried devastation into the rich country 
hitherto free from soldiery. The railroads were all destroyed. 
After an eight days' siege 
Savannah was captured 
on December 28. Sher- 
man here reopened com- 
munications with the 
North, telegraphing to 
President Lincoln that 
he gave him Savannah as 
a Christmas gift. 




>My> 



584. On the Coast and 
Sea; Price's Raid. —In 

the summer of this year a 
stop was put to blockade 
running in Mobile. Ad- 
miral Farragut, with his 
fleet, attacked the two forts guarding the entrance and captured 
them. He also captured the Confederate iron-clad, the Tennessee. 
The Confederate cruiser Alabama, after capturing sixty-nine 
prizes and inflicting untold injury upon the commerce of the 
United States, was sunk in a combat off the coast of France. 



General Hood. 



400 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

The Alabama was in the port of Cherbourg, France. While 
there, Semmes, her captain, offered battle to the Federal steamer 
Kearsarge^ and in an hour and a half the Alabama had sunk. 

The Shenandoah^ next to the Alabama^ inflicted the greatest 
damage upon the commerce of the North. Ignorant of events 
on shore, her crew were engaged in capturing United States 
whaling vessels in Behring Sea three months after the fall of 
the Confederacy. 

The Confederate cruiser Florida was illegally captured while 
in a neutral port in Brazil. Before any steps were taken in 
regard to it, the vessel was sunk by a collision with a United 
States vessel in Hampton Roads. 

General Sterling Price (August 28 to December 3), with about 
12,000 troops, moved rapidly through northern Arkansas and 
eastern Missouri, threatening St. Louis and Jefferson City, and 
returned through western Missouri, Kansas, and the Indian 
Territory. He marched nearly 1500 miles, fought forty-three 
battles and skirmishes, captured several thousand prisoners and 
large quantities of supplies, and destroyed property worth 
$10,000,000. His own loss was inconsiderable. 

585. Exchange of Prisoners. — At the beginning of the 
war the Union authorities refused to exchange prisoners be- 
cause to do so would be to recognize the Confederacy as a 
belligerent power. Union generals occasionally consented to 
an exchange with opposing commanders without express 
authority from their government. In the summer of 1862, 
however, a general system of exchange was agreed upon. But 
it was not long before obstacles were presented. A Confeder- 
ate soldier was found to be worth more to the South than a 
Union soldier to the North. Each Southern soldier captured 
lessened by one the fighting force of the Confederacy, because 
the South early enlisted all her able-bodied men and had no 
source from which to recruit her depleted armies, while the 



EVENTS OF 1864. 401 

greater population and wealth of the North readily supplied 
the places of captured Union soldiers. In 1864 the Federal 
authorities again resorted to the policy of refusing to exchange 
prisoners.-^ A delegation from the Federal prisoners at Ander- 
sonville, Ga., visited Washington and pleaded in vain for an 
exchange of themselves and their fellow prisoners.^ In the 
crowding together of large numbers of prisoners, conditions 
frequently arose in both Northern and Southern prisons that 
led to suffering, disease, and death. The blockade caused the 
supply of medicines in the South to become greatly reduced. 
When the Confederate authorities proposed to buy medicines 
of the North, to be used exclusively for Union prisoners, and 
even to be dispensed by Union surgeons, the request was 
ignored by the Federal government. 

The total number of Confederate prisoners in Northern 
prisons has been estimated at 220,000 ; the Union prisoners 
in Southern prisons, 270,000.^ The Confederates who died in 
Northern prisons numbered 26,246; Federals who died in 
Southern prisons, 22,576.'* 

586. Presidential Campaign of 1864; Nevada admitted. — 

Much dissatisfaction had arisen in the North over the long- 
continued war. Many were weary of the struggle and desired 
peace. The Democratic Convention declared openly its hostility 
to the war, pronouncing it a failure. They put in nomination 

1 General Grant, in a despatch to General Butler dated August 18, 1864, said: 
" It is hard on our men held in Southern prisons not to exchange them, but it is 
humanity to those left in the ranks to fight our battles. Every man released on 
parole or otherwise becomes an active soldier against us at once either directly or in- 
directly. If we commence a system of exchange which liberates all prisoners taken, 
we will have to fight on until the whole South is exterminated. If we hold those 
caught, they amount to no more than dead men. At this particular time, to release 
all rebel prisoners North would insure Sherman's defeat, and would compromise our 
safety here." 

2 Davis's « Rise and Fall," Vol. II, p. 598. 

3 Official Report U.S. Surgeon-General Barnes. 

4 Report of U. S. Sec. of War Stanton. 



402 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

for the presiaency General McClellan, who secured a large 
popular vote. Opportune Union victories gave renewed confi- 
dence in Lincoln, who was reelected. Andrew Johnson, the 
war governor of Tennessee, was elected vice-president. 
Nevada was admitted as a state in March, 1864. 

587. Summary of Events of 1864. The campaign had been opened 
in May by forward movements in the East under Grant and in the West 
under Sherman. In his advance against Richmond, Grant had fought the 
battles of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania, and Cold Harbor. Lee was 
finally driven inside his fortifications, and the siege of Petersburg began. 

In the West Sherman had been skillfully opposed by Johnston, who was 
gradually forced to fall back to Atlanta. Here Johnston was superseded 
by Hood. Atlanta was captured, and Hood moved into Tennessee. He 
was followed by General Thomas, and his army was almost totally destroyed 
at Nashville. Sherman continued his march southward, and just before 
Christmas had reached Savannah. Nevada admitted. 

CONCLUSION OF THE WAR (1865). 

588. Sherman's March through the Carolinas. — In 

February, 1865, Sherman left Savannah, and began his march 
northward to join Grant. He had been ordered to transport 
his army by sea, but, finding this impracticable, he marched 
overland through the state of South Carolina, which was 
looked upon in the North as the "hotbed of the rebellion." 
Much destruction marked his path. The beautiful city of 
Columbia, the capital of the state, was burned while Sher- 
man's army was occupying it. Unopposed by any obstacle 
save such as nature offered, 'Sherman continued his onward 
movement, clearly demonstrating the fact that the Confederacy 
was but a shell which he had penetrated. 

589. Johnston Recalled. — Meanwhile Johnston had been 
recalled, and, gathering what scattered remnants of the old 
army he could find, with the garrisons of Charleston and other 
coast cities which had been evacuated at Sherman's approach, 



CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 4O3 

he placed himself in front of Sherman with a force of about 
20,000 men. Sherman was vigorously and almost successfully 
attacked at Bentonville, N.C., on March 19. Sherman was 
joined by Terry and Schofield at Goldsboro four days later, 
and his forces now outnumbered Johnston's five to one. 
Sherman moved toward Raleigh, and Johnston withdrew in 
the same direction, both armies awaiting the result in Virginia. 

590. Sheridan's Raid. — General Sheridan, with his cavalry, 
moved southward up the Shenandoah Valley, carrying destruc- 
tion with him. His object was to cut off Lee's base of sup- 
plies from the West and South. He destroyed part of the 
railroad between Lynchburg and Richmond, and made the 
James River canal useless, thus cutting off supplies from 
Richmond. He then captured Five Forks, twelve miles south- 
west from Petersburg, and thus intercepted the supplies for 
that point, afterwards rejoining Grant around Richmond. 

591. Evacuation of Richmond and Surrender of Lee. — 

Grant had been gradually extending his army around Rich- 
mond, thereby lengthening and at the same time weakening 
Lee's line of defense. By sudden attacks Lee gained some 
unimportant successes. At last the line was lengthened too 
much, and broke in twain. Grant, with his 200,000 men, was 
able to force the 45,000 men under Lee to leave their position. 
On the last day of March the assault upon the Confederate 
line began. For three days the attacks were nobly met, and 
then Lee, realizing that he could not resist another attack, on 
April 2 evacuated his position and began his retreat toward the 
southwest. Grant pursued vigorously, giving the Confederates 
no time for rest. The army was famished. Lee's forward 
movement was stopped at Appomattox Court House by Union 
forces under Sheridan. Grant was behind him. Surrounded 
on all sides by overwhelming forces, Lee surrendered, April 9, 
his less than 10,000 muskets. Liberal terms were granted, the 



404 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

soldiers being permitted to return home after giving their oath 
not to enlist again in the war till exchanged. 

592. Assassination of President Lincoln Five days after 

Lee's surrender the world was shocked by the assassination of 
President Lincoln. He was shot in his box at Ford's Theater 
in Washington, on the evening of April 14, by John Wilkes 
Booth, an actor. Booth seems to have thought that the 
death of the president and members of his cabinet (Secretary 
Seward was stabbed, but not fatally, in his own house on the 
same evening) would paralyze the government and give the 
South another chance. He crept up behind the president, 
who was in the midst of his family and friends, and shot him 
through the head. He then leaped upon the stage, exclaiming 
" Sic semper tyrannis ! " (Thus ever to tyrants). Although the 
assassin fell and broke a leg, he escaped from the theater and 
fled into Virginia, where he was shortly afterward overtaken 
and, as he refused to surrender, put to death. The assassina- 
tion was a part of a conspiracy which was ferreted out. The 
conspirators were captured, tried, and convicted, four to be 
hanged, and four to serve long terms of imprisonment. Booth 
was probably insane. His crime was viewed with horror in the 
South as well as in the North. The tragic death of Lincoln 
was a terrible misfortune to the whole country, and most of all 
to the South. Vice-President Johnson took the oath of office as 
president within three hours after Lincoln had passed away. 

593. Surrender of Johnston ; Close of the War. — After 
Lee's surrender, Johnston and Sherman agreed upon terms of 
surrender for the former's army. These terms were rejected 
by President Johnson and his cabinet as too liberal. No 
doubt this was due to the North's being enraged at the assassi- 
nation of President Lincoln. Johnston surrendered to Sher- 
man, April 26, upon the same terms as had been accorded to 
Lee. The surrender of other Southern forces soon followed. 



CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 405 

President Davis was captured in Georgia on the loth of 
May. On the 12th of May the Confederates won the last battle 
of the war at Boco Chico, on the Rio Grande, in Texas. General 
Kirby Smith surrendered the Confederate forces west of the 
Mississippi on the 26th of May. 

The greatest war of history was at an end. The South had 
worn herself out fighting against overwhelming odds, both in 
numbers and material resources. The courage and endurance 
of the Southern soldier have never been surpassed. Of the 
200 battles of the war, he won 120. His deeds form fitting 
themes for song and story. 

^94. Robert E. Lee. — As the clouds of passion and preju- 
dice clear away from the war between the states, Robert E. 
Lee is seen to have been its greatest figure. Sprung from a 
historic ancestry — he was the son of "Light-horse Harry" 
Lee (§ 313) — and born (January 19, 1807) in Westmoreland 
County, Virginia, near the birthplace of Washington, he inher- 
ited the heroic spirit of Revolutionary sires. His boyhood was 
as simple and noble as Washington's. At West Point, where 
he was graduated in 1829, he was distinguished for both high 
scholarship and perfect deportment. Assigned as lieutenant 
to a corps of engineers of the United States army, he studied 
his profession intensely and was noted for his faultless habits. 
On June 30, 1831, he was married to Mary Custis, daughter of 
G. W. P. Custis, Washington's adopted son. He gained dis- 
tinction as a member of the corps of engineers at Hampton 
Roads, Washington, St. Louis, and New York. General Scott 
took Lee with him to Mexico in 1846, placed him on his staff, 
and made him his military adviser. After the war Captain 
Lee was assigned to construct works for the defense of Balti- 
more Harbor, whence he was called in 1852 to the superin- 
tendency of the West Point Military Academy. This position 
he filled for three years with great ability. When, in 1855, 
Congress added two regiments of cavalry to the regular army. 



406 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

the secretary of war, Mr. Jefferson Davis, assigned Captain 
Lee to the lieutenant-colonelcy of one of these regiments, 
Albert Sidney Johnston being its colonel. Lee was sent first 
to Louisville, then to Jefferson Barracks, Mo., and in 1856 to 
Texas. From this time to 1861 he was stationed on the Texas 
frontier. While at home on a furlough he was directed by the 
secretary of war to capture John Brown (§ 504). In February, 
186 1, he was summoned to Washington. Here he was offered 
the command of the army which was to be brought into the 
field by the United States. He declined because, as he wrote 
afterward, " though opposed to secession and deprecating a 
war, I could take no part in the invasion of the Southern 
states." He sent his resignation as an officer in the United 
States army to the secretary of war on the 20th of April, and 
at the same time wrote to his friend. General Scott, the 
letter to which reference is made elsewhere. Lee's love of the 
Union, which he had served so long and so well, and his 
unfaltering loyalty to Virginia, made this act a struggle as 
great as Chancellorsville or Gettysburg. Virginia at once 
offered him the position of commander-in-chief of her forces. 
His brief speech of acceptance is a model of manly modesty 
and eloquence. He declined the command of the mighty 
armies of the Union to accept that of the forces of his 
beloved state. When the Confederate government was trans- 
ferred from Montgomery to Richmond, General Lee became 
the military adviser of President Davis. The history of the 
next four years is largely a history of Lee. He was a great 
organizer. His genius as a strategist was unrivaled. Wise 
and far-sighted in planning, he was terrible in execution. 
Serene in victory, he was undaunted in defeat. His men loved 
him with a tenderness and devotion stronger than death. His 
greatness was not dimmed by disaster. After the war was 
over, he urged his people to accept its results in good faith, 
and to look to the future rather than to the past. Asked to 



CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 40/ 

lend the use of his name to a great insurance enterprise to 
which he could not give his personal attention, he declined. 
The name of Lee, poor though he was, could not be bought 
for fifty thousand dollars a year. In 1865 he accepted 
the presidency of Washington College, and devoted the re- 
mainder of his life to' the great work of training the young 
men of the South for the responsibilities of the future. In this 
noble institution, now Washington and Lee University, his 
name is forever linked with that of Washington. His death 
occurred at his home in Lexington on the 12th of October, 
1870. A sincere Christian, a gentleman without reproach, 
a great general, patriot of the highest type, Robert E. Lee 
holds a secure place among the world's heroes. 

THE WAR ENDED. 

595. Numbers Engaged. — On July i, 1861, the Union 
army numbered 186,000 men. Six months later it had in- 
creased to nearly 600,000. The increase continued until more 
than a million men were under arms at a time. The entire 
number of men enrolled in the Union armies during the four 
years was 2,850,000. 

The Confederates never had so many troops in the field as 
the Federals, and toward the close of the war the number 
became very much smaller. The numbers were about as 10 
to 9 in 1861 ; in 1862 they were as 10 to 6; in 1863, ^^ ^o to 
5 ; in 1864, as 10 to 3 ; and in January, 1865, as 10 to 2. The 
entire white male population of the South in i860 was about 
2,800,000. Of this number probably not more than one in 
four would make an able-bodied soldier. The complete en- 
rollment of the Confederate army is not known. The largest 
number of Confederates in the field at any time during the 
war was about 450,000.^ 

1 Jameson's Dictionary of United States History, "Army." President Davis, 
Vice-President Stephens, and Adjutant-General S. Cooper estimated the Confeder- 
ate enrollment as not more than 600,000, 



408 HISTORY OF OUK COUNTRY. 

596. Losses: In Men. — The Union armies lost by deaths 
(luring the war al)out 360,000 men. The loss of the Confed- 
erates is not known, but it may have amounted to a quarter of 
a million. Many more on both sides incurred wounds or 
diseases which either killed them afterward or disabled them 
for life. It is probable that the war •cost the country three- 
quarters of a miUion of its best vien. 

597. Losses: in Money. ^ — The money cost of the war is 
estimated by careful students at {$^9,000,000,000. The national 
debt in August, 1865, reached the enormous sum of $2,845,- 
907,626.26. It has not been paid off yet, — thirty-three years 
after the close of the contest. The amount paid for pensions to 
Union soldiers seems likely to reach $2,000,000,000. Besides 
what the general government spent, the states and municipali- 
ties poured out freely vast sums to help preserve the Union. 

But the South suffered most. The abolition of slavery 
meant, to the white people of the South, the destruction of 
$2,000,000,000 of their property, 'i'ho property destroyed by 
both armies was enormous. Thousands of homes were burned, 
cities were destroyed, railroads were torn up, and all the notes 
and bonds issued by the states of the Confederacy, as well as 
by the Confederate government, were made worthless by the 
failure of the Confederacy (see Const., Amendment XIV). 

598. The Armies Disbanded. - The Union armies were 
reviewed at Washington l)y the president in May, and nearly a 
million men were paid off and sent to their homes. The regu- 
lar army was reduced to 50,000 men. The soldiers, proud of 
success, turned to the pursuits of peace, finding their country 
prospering as never before. 

The case was far different v/ith the Southern soldiers. 
** Ragged, half-starved, heavy-hearted," they went back to 
begin anew and build up a new South. The following 
description of the South's desolation at the close of the war 
between the states is not overdrawn : — 



CONCLUSION Ol^ THK WAK. 4O9 

"Think of him as ragged, half-starved, heavy-hearted, enfeebled 
by want and wounds ; having fought to exhaustion, lie surrenders 
his gun, wrings the hands of his tomrades in silence, and, lilting his 
tear-stained and pallid face for the last time to the graves tliat d(jt 
the old Virginia hills, pulls his gray cap over his brow and begins 
the slow and painful journey. What does he find — let me ask you 
who went to your homes eager to find, in the welcome you had justly 
earned, full payment for four years' sacrifice — what does he find 
when, having followed the battle-stained cross against overwhelming 
odds, dreading death not half so much as surrender, he reaches the 
home he left so prosperous and beautiful? He finds his house in 
ruins, his farm devastated, his slaves free, his stock killed, his barn 
empty, his trade destroyed, his money worthless ; his social system, 
feudal in its magnificence, swept away ; his people without law or 
legal status ; his comrades slain, and the burdens of others heavy on 
his shoulders. Crushed by defeat, his very traditions gone ; without 
money, credit, employment, material training ; and, besides all this, 
confronted with the gravest problem that ever met human intelli- 
gence, — the estaljlishing of a status for the vast body of his liber- 
ated slaves. What does he do, — this hero in gray with a heart of 
gold? Does he sit down in sullenness and despair? Not for a day. 
Surely God, who had stripped him of his prosperity, inspired him in 
his adversity. As luin was never before so overwhelming, never 
was restoration swifter. The soldier stepped from the trenches into 
the furrow ; horses that had faced I'^ederal guns marched before the 
plow, and fields that ran red with human blood in April were green 
with the harvest in June ; women reared in luxury cut up their 
dresses and made breeches for their husbands, and, with a patience 
and heroism that fit women always as a garment, gave their hands to 
work. There was little bitterness in all this. Cheerfulness and frank- 
ness prevailed."- 11. W. Cj<ai>v, bef<jre the New England Society. 

599. Slavery Abolished. — 'ITie Thirteenth Amendment to the 
Constitution, abolishing slavery, proposed l>y Congress in Febru- 
ary, 1865, was declared adopted in Decendjerof the same year. 

600. Finances of the Federal Government. The Morrill 
Tariff, passed in i860, before the war was certain, furnished a 



4IO HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

new basis of taxation. It changed the ad valorem duties of 
the Walker Tariff (1856) to specific, called for higher duties, 
and laid a duty on wool. 

Paper Money — National Banks. — Congress also issued 
paper money, and made it legal tender for all debts. In 1863 
there were over $450,000,000 of such money outstanding. 
Gold rose until 1865, when it reached 285. Bonds were issued 
for immense sums. One of the means employed to float these 
bonds was the present national banking system, the first steps 
of which were taken in 1863. To start a national bank it is 
necessary for the organizers to buy and deposit with the 
United States Treasurer a certain amount of government 
bonds to protect circulation. The bank is then allowed to 
issue bank notes equal to 90 per cent of the amount of 
bonds purchased. In order to encourage this banking system, 
a tax of 10 per cent was levied upon the circulation of state 
banks. 

Internal Reve7me. — The Internal Revenue Act, a system of 
taxation discarded by Jefferson, was brought again into use in 
1863. Although several articles taxed at that time are no 
longer subject to taxation, the system is still in existence, 
deriving most of its revenue, however, from its tax on liquors 
and tobacco. 

601. Finances of the Confederacy. — The South had to 
raise its money by the sale of bonds which bore a ruinous rate 
of interest, and by the issue of paper money redeemable six 
months after the close of the war. The blockade prevented 
the sale of products of Southern plantations, and this took 
away the basis of credit. After a time bonds were hard to sell, 
and the amount of paper money increased until it had very 
little value. 

Confederate Soldiers from Texas. — Texas furnished the 
Confederate armies forty-four general officers, including one 
general, one lieutenant-general, three major-generals, and 



CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 4I I 

thirty-nine brigadier-generals. Only two states (Virginia and 
Georgia) exceeded this total. The Texas officers in the Con- 
federate service were as follows (compiled from the official 
roster in Confedei-ate Soldiers in the Civil War, published by 
Courier-Journal Company) : 

General. — Albert Sidney Johnston (see Appendix B). 

Lieutenant-General. — John B. Hood (see Appendix B). 

Major-Generals, — J. A. Wharton (cavalry officer, rendered 
gallant service at Shiloh, in the operations in Tennessee, and 
in the Red River campaign), S. B. Maxey (commanded a force 
in the Indian Territory, later participated in the Vicksburg and 
Red River campaigns, after the war was United States senator), 
Thomas L. Rosser (conspicuous for his services as commander 
of the Virginia cavalry in the valley of the Shenandoah). 

Brigadier- Generals. — (Space forbids a recital of the military 
careers of all these officers. To record the gallant achieve- 
ments of only a few would be invidious. For such information 
the interested student is referred to detailed histories of the 
war.) F. C. Armstrong, P. C. Archer, A. P. Bagby, J. R. 
Baylor, H. P. Bee, X. B. DeBray, M. D. Ector, R. M. Gano, 
G. H. Granbury (killed at Franklin, Tenn.), John Gregg (killed 
at Fort Harrison, near Richmond), Tom Green (killed at 
Blair's Landing, Red River campaign), Elkanah Greer, W. P. 
Hardeman, J, E. Harrison, Thomas Harrison, Richard Harri- 
son, Joseph L. Hogg, A. R. Johnson, W. H. King, W. P. Lane, 
H. P. Mabry, Ben McCuUoch (killed at Pea Ridge, Ark.), H. 
E. McCulloch, J. C. Moore, A. Nelson, W. H. Parsons, C. W. 
Phifer, Horace Randall (killed at Jenkins Saline, Ark.), J. B. 
Robertson, F. H. Robertson, E. S. C. Robertson, L. S. Ross 
(afterward governor of Texas), William Steele, W. R. Scurry, 
Richard Waterhouse, T. N. Waul, J. W. Whitfield, Louis 
Wigfall, Vv^. H. Young. 

Private Soldiers, — At the close of 1863 Governor Lubbock 
of Texas estimated that there were 90,000 Texas troops enrolled 
in the Confederate service. As the resources of the state at 



412 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

that time had been drained to the utmost, it is probable that 
these numbers were never materially increased. The achieve- 
ments of these Texas soldiers form some of the brightest pages 
in military history. On their native soil, their heroism at Gal- 
veston and Sabine Pass accomplished the most brilliant suc- 
cesses of the war. In their sister states of Missouri, Arkansas, 
and Louisiana, the lifeblood of their brave officers and gallant 
men freely spilled at Wilson's Creek, Pea Ridge, Mansfield, and 
on a hundred minor fields, attested their devotion to the cause 
for which they fought. Beyond the Mississippi, in the desperate 
conflicts from Shiloh and Corinth to Chickamauga and Atlanta, 
their dauntless courage was the pride of their fellow-soldiers, 
the admiration of their foes. And with Lee's veterans beyond 
the Alleghanies, far from their Texas homes and firesides, from 
the Peninsula to Gettysburg, and from the Wilderness to 
Appomattox, they marched to certain death with a sublime 
courage and a reckless daring that called forth the eulogy of 
their great commander, and gained for themselves and Texas 
imperishable renown. 

602. Summary of Last Year of the War. — Sherman, leaving Savannah, 
marched northward to join Grant, leaving destruction in his path. In 
North Carolina he was ineffectually opposed by an army under Joseph E. 
Johnston. The Shenandoah Valley in Virginia was laid waste by Sheridan's 
troops. Lee was compelled by Grant's superior forces to evacuate Peters- 
burg and Richmond. On April 9, at Appomattox Court House, a few 
miles southwest of Richmond, Lee accepted terms of surrender for his 
army. On April 14 President Lincoln was assassinated in a Washington 
theater, and Vice-President Johnson became President. Within the next 
two months the armies of Joseph E. Johnston and all other Southern 
forces surrendered. Probably three and a half million men were enrolled 
in the armies on both sides during the war, one-fifth of these in Southern 
armies. The war cost the lives of three-quarters of a million men, and 
nine billion dollars in money and property. As results of the war, the 15th 
amendment abolishing slavery was adopted, and the North and South were 
in the end more closely united. 

603. Thought Questions. — What did the South consider the first act 
of the war ? What did the North consider the first act ? Why did South 



CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 



413 



Carolina insist on the surrender of Fort Sumter? Why did President 
Lincoln refuse to agree to its surrender ? What principle was the South 
fighting for ? The North ? Was there any advantage to the South in the 
fact that the war was waged in her territory ? What disadvantages resulted 
to her from this ? Copy and fill out the following table : 



Union Victories. 
Confederate Victories. 



i85i 



1862. 



■863. 



[864 and 1865. 



In what year was the South most successful? What was the turning- 
point of the war? What results might have followed if McDowell had 
defeated the Southern army at Bull Run? What injury to the South did 
the slaves have it in their power to inflict during the war? What does their 
conduct prove ? What were the causes of the greater suffering in the South 
than in the North ? What do you consider the two most important battles 
fought east of the Alleghanies ? West of the Alleghanies ? Who, in your 
opinion, were the two ablest Southern generals ? The two ablest Northern 
generals? Enumerate the evils wrought by the war. The benefits that 
resulted from it. 



^ 



s ^ 

^ en 



Topical Analysis (War Between the States). 

C 526. The New President. 

Beginning of the Administra- f Condition of the country. 

tion. \ The president's position. 

The Question as to f Alternative presented. 

Fort Sumter. \ Commissioners at Washington. 

T^ ^ « i I' Action of U. S. government. 
Fort Sumter. < ^ ^ r .u ^ . 
[ Capture of the fort. 

f In the North. 

530, 531. Effect of the Fall of Sumter. <| In the South. 

[ In the border states. 

532. Confidence North and South : Elements of strength. 

r East of the Alleghanies. 

533- The South's Line of Defense. J ^^^^^ °^ '^^ Alleghanies. 

j On the Mississippi. 
I The coast line. 
534. Northern Plan of Operations : Plans against the South's defenses 
Minor engagements, 
nion successo 



527- 



528. 



529- 



535. In West Virginia 



r M 



414 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 






o 5 



^ ^ 



f " On to Richmond." 

536, 537. The First Battle. ^ ^^^ °PP°^^"g ^^^^^^- 
1 Victory at Manassas. 

I Effect of the battle. 

f Defeat of Gov. Jackson's plans. 

538. In Missouri. ■{ Battle of Wilson's Creek. 

(^ Federals in control. 

o, ^, r, . ^ Privateers. 

539. On the Coast. ^ t,, , , 

(^ Blockade runners. 

540. The Trent Affair. 



O 



^ 



S5W 



542, 543. Kentucky and Ten- f Mill Spring. 

nessee seized. \ Forts Henry and Donelson, 
544- Battle of Shiloh. 

545. The Upper Mississippi: Fall of Confederate strongholds. 

546. West of the Mississippi : Battle of Pea Ridge. 
547- Bragg's Invasion of Tennessee and Kentucky. 

548. In Northern Mississippi : luka and Corinth. 

549. Bragg's Second Movement : Murfreesboro. 

f The defenses of New Orleans. 

550. The Lower Mississippi.^' The Union attack. 

[ The fall of the city. 

551. On the Sea : Afon/tor and A/ern'wac. 

552-554. The Peninsular f McClellan against Richmond. 
Campaign. i Jackson's Valley campaign. 
[ The seven days' battles. 
Pope against Richmond : Second Bull Run. 
Lee's Invasion of the North : Antietam or Sharpsburg. 
Burnside against Richmond : Fredericksburg. 
Emancipation Proclamation. 



555' 
556. 

SS7- 
558, 



560. Hooker against Richmond : Chancellorsville. 

561, 562. Lee's Second Invasion of the North: Gettysburg. 



563. Fall of Vicksburg. 

564. Movements in Texas. 



» \ 



Galveston. 
Sabine Pass. 

f Chickamauga. 

565-567. Around Chattanooga. ^ ^'^^^ °^ Chattanooga. 

! Lookout Mt. and Mis- 
l sionary Ridge. 

568. The Conscription Act : Draft Riot in New York. 

569. West Virginia Admitted to the Uniono 



CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 



415 



^ 



r His promotion. 
572, 573- Lieutenant-General Grant. | j^.^ ^^^^ 

'574. Grant's Plans against Richmond. 

f The Wilderness. 
Spottsylvania Court House. 



Cold Harbor. 



IS 



584 



585. 
I 586, 

588, 

590. 

593 
594 
595 



575. Lee versus Grant. -{ 

I Results. 

576. Butler's Movements : On James River. 

577. The Shenandoah Valley, f Sigel's defeat. 

578. Grant's Change of Base. ■{ Butler's defeat. 

579. The Petersburg Mine. t Early's campaign. 

<■ Sherman and Forrest. 
571. Minor Movements. | ^^^^^^,^ ^^^ ^.^^^ Expedition. 

580. 581. Campaign against ( Sherman and Johnston. 

Atlanta. X Sherman and Hood. 

582. Hood in Tennessee : Franklin, Nashville. 
5S3. Sherman's March to the Sea. 

r Port of Mobile closed. 
I Alabama and Kearsarge. 
-{ The Shenandoah. 
The Florida. 
^ Price in Missouri. 
Exchange of Prisoners. 
Presidential Campaign of 1864. 

( March of Devastation. 
589. Sherman in the Carolinas. | ^pp^^^^ ^y Johnston. 

Sheridan's Raid. 

Evacuation of Richmond and Surrender of Lee. 

Assassination of Lincoln. 

Surrender of Johnston : Close of War. 

Robert E. Lee. 

Numbers engaged in the War. 

C In Men. 
597. Losses. 



On Coast and Sea. 
Price's Raid. 



In Money. 

598. The Armies Disbanded. 

599. Slavery Abolished. 

600. Finances of Federal Government, 



601. Finances of the Confederacy. 



Tariff. 

Paper Money. 
National Banks. 
Internal Revenue. 



THE STATES REUNITED, 



RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 

(Johnson, Grant.) 
Johnson's Administration. 

One Term: 1865-1869. 

604. Services and Character of the New President: 
Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina in 1808, and 
removed in 1826 to Tennessee. He was a tailor by trade, but 
was drawn early in life to take a 
deep interest in politics. He is 
said to have been taught reading 
and writing by his wife after 
marriage. He served his adopted 
state for many years in various 
positions. He was congressman 
for ten years, 1843-1853, governor 
for four years, 1853-1857, and he 
was twice chosen U. S. senator. 
His death in 1875 interrupted his 
second term as senator. Johnson 
was a devoted friend to the Union, and at the same time a firm 
believer in states' rights. He was bold to the point of rash- 
ness, stubborn in the maintenance of what he believed to be 
right, and so aggressive as to provoke rather than to concil- 
iate opposition. 

605. Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruction. — Long before 
the war closed Lincoln had devised a plan for restoring the 
seceded states to their places in the Union. In his message 




Andrew Johnson. 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 41/ 

to Congress in 1863 he outlined the following policy : all who 
would take an oath to support the Constitution were to be 
allowed to vote ; if they numbered ten per cent of the voting 
population of i860, they could reorganize a state government. 
If he had lived there is little doubt that he would have been 
strong enough to carry out his plan, and that the Southern 
states would have been speedily restored to the Union. 

606. Johnson's Political Position. — In electing Johnson 
vice-president the Republicans made a mistake similar to that 
made by the Whigs in 1840 (§ 455). Before the war he 
had been a Democrat, but he refused to give up his seat in 
Congress when his state, Tennessee, seceded, because he be- 
lieved secession to be the work of the aristocratic element, 
which he thoroughly hated. He was placed upon the ticket 
with Lincoln in recognition of the Southerners who had 
been loyal to the Union, and not because he was a Republi- 
can. Johnson had been very vindictive in his utterances 
against the Southern leaders, and claimed that the majority of 
the people had been misled by them. He desired that the 
conquered states might be at once restored to the Union. He 
proclaimed amnesty to all except a few classes to whom par- 
don was to be granted only upon personal application. He 
wished, as Lincoln had done, to restore peace as soon as pos- 
sible. He declared that reconstruction was the work of the 
president, not Congress. His plan was to turn the states over 
at once to the people, trusting them to manage their own 
aifairs. In conformity with his proclamation, all the seceded 
states formed new state governments and elected representa- 
tives to Congress, — but when Congress met in 1865 it 
ignored the president's plan, and refused to recognize the 
Southern representatives. The " Radicals " had a large ma- 
jority in Congress, and easily passed measures over the presi- 
dent's veto, thus rendering him powerless. 



4l8 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

607. Congresses Plan of Reconstruction. — A resolution 
was passed in Congress that "the seceded states have, by 
their own actions, temporarily lost their right of self-govern- 
ment, and it is the duty of Congress to restore it to them 
under such conditions as will secure to each state a republican 
form of government, as provided for in the Constitution." The 
conditions were embodied in the 14th amendment to the Con- 
stitution, which gave citizenship to the negroes and disfran- 
chised most of the prominent whites of the South. Tennessee 
was the only Southern state that ratified the amendment at 
this time, and it was restored to the Union in July, 1866. The 
other states rejected the amendment. By act^of Congress then 
the ten states were divided into five military districts, under the 
control of Federal officers, and ratification of the 14th amend- 
ment was made a condition of their restoration to the Union, 
This bill, and others like it, were passed over the president's veto. 

608. Distrust of the President. — The Thirty-ninth Con- 
gress adjourned March 4. Under the law the next Congress 
would not meet until the first Monday in December. Johnson 
was so distrusted by the Radicals that they feared to leave him 
without a Congress for so long a time, and so, before their 
adjournment, they changed the time of meeting of the Fortieth 
Congress to March 4, thus allowing no mterim between the 
sessions of the old Congress and the new one. This session, 
however, lasted but one month, and adjourned.^ 

609. States Readmitted ; a New State. — The Southern 
states, at last, seeing that Johnson was powerless to help them, 
and finding their position under military rule hard to bear, com- 
plied with the demands of Congress and ratified the 14th amend- 
ment, which was declared adopted in 1868.^ By June, 1868, 

1 It held a short session in July (3d to 20th) and then adjourned to November. 

2 " The Fourteenth Amendment has revolutionized the character of our political 
system. It declares that all persons born within the Hmits of the United States are 
citizens. Prior to that amendment, one was a citizen of the United States only 



RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 419 

all the states had acquiesced in the demands of Congress 
except Georgia, Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas. Before the 
close of 1870 those states had also regained their places in the 
Union. 

The new state of Nebraska was admitted in 1867. 

610. The Result of Reconstruction Policy. — The " recon- 
structed " state governments were altogether unsatisfactory to 
the white people of the South. The " iron-clad " oath, which 
required every candidate for office to swear that he had not 
taken any part in secession, excluded nearly all who were fit 
to hold offices. A swarm of greedy and mostly unprincipled 
men from the North — the "carpet-baggers"^ — poured into 
the South, and, by misleading the ignorant and credulous 
negro voters, got control of the state and local governments. 
Extravagance and corruption in public affairs became the order 
of the day. This was the darkest time in the history of the 
South. The *' carpet-bag " governors were able to keep their 
places only with the help of Federal troops, and this was not 
wholly withdrawn until 1877. 

611. Impeachment. — To make the president as helpless as 
possible, Congress passed the " Tenure of Office " bill, provid- 
ing that the president could not remove any of the leading offi- 
cials, his appointees, without the consent of the Senate. 

President Johnson considered the bill unconstitutional, and 
refused to submit. Overruling the action of the Senate, he 
removed Stanton from his position of secretary of war.^ In con- 
by virtue of his citizenship in a particular state, and a primary and paramount 
allegiance was due to that state. The changed or amended constitution accepted by 
the states has consigned the doctrine of secession to the tomb of the Capulets, and 
we have one flag, one constitution, one Union, one national government, one destiny." 
— (Hon. J. L. M. Curry's Richmond Address to Confederate Veterans.) 

i Called "carpet-baggers" because at f^rst, moneyless and with no permanent 
home, all their effects were carried in a valise, or " carpet-bag." 

2 " For the first time in the history of the United States an officer distasteful to 
the president, and personally distrusted and disliked by him, was forced upon him as 



420 



IMS'IOKV Ol' OUK COUNTRY. 



sequence of this, and other similar acts of opposition to ('on- 
gress, the House of Representatives preferred charges of 
impeachment against the president. lie was tried before the 
Senate, Chief justice (>hase presiding, and after a trial of six 
weeks he was adjudged not guilty. (Jonviction re(iuires a 
two-thirds vote of the senators ; thirty-five of the fifty four 
senators voted him guilty, and he thus came within one vole 
of being removed from his office as president of the: Unitid 
States. 

612. Jefferson Davis Brought to Trial. On the ^d day 
of I )<'<:cnil)er, i<Sf)<S, Mr. Davis w;is brought to trial in the 
Circuit Court of tiie United States for the J^istrict of Virginia, 
before Chief Justice Chase of the Supreme Court oi the United 
States and District Judge Underwood. Several indictments 
for treason and for conspiring willi Robert i'^. Lee and many 
others to levy war against the United States were [)referred 
against him. He was brought to trial on all of them. A mo- 
tion to (|uasli (lie indietinctnts was made by his counsel, one of 
the most distinguished of wli(jm was Charles O'Connor of New 
York. After argument. Chief Justice Chase announced that 
the Court " had failed to agree upon a decision in regard to 
the motion to (piash the indictments against Mr. Jefferson 
Davi.s," and instructed the re|)orter of the Court to record him 
as "being of opinion that the indictment should be (|uashed." 
Judge Underwood, being of a contrary opinion, the case was 
certified to the Supreme Court of the United States for decision. 
No further proceedings were ever taken in the cases. The 
Attorney-Ceneral of the United States never asked the Supreme 
Court for a hearing on the certificate ; and, at a subsequent 

one of liis confiflontial ;i(lvlser9 in the administmtioii of tlie government. . . . 'J'lie liis- 
tory of every precedinj^ iidmlnistration, and of every subsequent adnunistration of 
the Federal government, proves that the Senate was in the wrong." (Illaine's 
" Twenty Years in Congress.") 

When (Irant liecame president tiiis IjiU was practically set aside at Ids request ; 
and in 1885 it was entirely reix-aled. 



RKCONSTKlJCrj K>.\ I'I'.I'irH;. 



42 J 



term of the (JircuiL (Jourt. oi tdc (JniLed States for Virginia, all 
the indictments against iMr. Davis were dismisscfl.' It i-, 
manifest from these proceedings that the counsel for the (United 
States became satisfied that thiey could not proMu<: ;i. cf;rjvJc- 
tion of Mr. iJavis before their own tril>un;i.l',. Wc h;id long 
previously been fully vindic;i.t';d by thf. efiliglit':ri(:rl [jiiblic 
opinion of the worUi. 

613. Maximilian in Mexico. Louis Najjol<;rjn, tlie ircrjcli 
I'irnperor, fjad t;i.l<»;n ;i.dvantage of the war in the liniterl States 
to subjugate Mexico. At the close of tfie w;i.r the l/nitcfl 
States government demanderj the withdr;i,w;d of the i'rf;nf h 
troops C§ 420^. Napoleon yielded, le;).ving to his fate M;i,x 
imilian, Arch I>uke of Austria, wliorn fie fiad made Kmperor 
of Mexico. Maximilian r;i,sfily remained in that country, and 
was capturer] ■.\n(\ sliot l>y tfje Mexicans. 

614. The Atlantic Cable. Several attempts fiad been 
marie to connect tfje New and Old World by tf:legrafjf). 




Orfjst East<:fri. 

These efforts finally proved successful in I'y/jCj. Cyrus W. 
Field ''' was the active leader in the great enterjjrise of laying the 
submarine telegraph-wire f^etween tfie coasts of Nf:wfoundland 

1 Authoritifrs: iVl»:ral cav;^ in th«: Cirouit an'l l)\-:ir'i'X Court.-, <,i ilif. i^inU-A 
States, Vol, VII, pp, 63-102, inclusive, 

2 Field nrifxiestly !»aid of this great af,hi<:v»-,rn<:rit : " Mattfi'iw F. Maury iurii\f,\ifA 
the brains, Kngland gave the money, and I did tlic work." (See § 503.; 



422 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



and Ireland. The steamship Great Easterfi — at that time the 
largest vessel ever constructed — was used for this purpose. 

615. Purchase of Alaska. — This territory had been dis- 
covered in 1 741 by Vitus Behring, a Russian explorer. Its 
name was changed from Russian America to Alaska at the time 
of its purchase by the United States. 




Sitka, Alaska 



In 1867 the United States purchased Alaska from the Rus- 
sian government for $7,200,000. Alaska consists of about 
500,000 square miles. Part of it, the Aleutian Islands, extends 
so far west into the Pacific Ocean as to make the meridian of 



i 

\ 



RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 425 

longitude passing through San Francisco nearly midway be- 
tween the extreme eastern and extreme western parts of the 
United States. Alaska has proved valuable on account of the 
seal fisheries. 

616. Election of 1868. —- General U. S. Grant, of Illinois, 
to whom the chief credit for the final success of the Union 
arms was due, had won thereby great prestige, and had become 
very popular with the masses of the people of the United 
States. He was nominated for the presidency by the Republi- 
cans in 1868. Schuyler Colfax was the Republican nominee 
for vice-president. The platform endorsed the reconstruction 
acts of Congress. 

The Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour, of New York, 
and Francis P. Blair, of Missouri, as their candidates for 
president and vice-president. Their platform favored the 
" immediate restoration of all the states to their rights in the 
Union under the Constitution." They declared the reconstruc- 
tion acts "usurpation, unconstitutional, revolutionary, and void." 

Of the 294 electoral votes Grant received 214, Seymour, 80. 
Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia were not allowed to vote be- 
cause they had not been readmitted. 

617. Summary. — A conflict soon arose between President Johnson and 
Congress as to the method of readmitting the seceded states. A bill was 
passed over the president's veto dividing the South into five military districts 
under the control of Federal officers. Nebraska was admitted in 1867. It 
was 1870 before all the Southern states were restored to their places in the 
Union. During this reconstruction period and for some years later, the 
South was a victim of the rascality and corruption of " carpet-bag " govern- 
ments. The quarrel between the president and Congress reached its climax 
in the impeachment of the president, which resulted in his acquittal by 
one vote. Jefferson Davis was brought to trial, but the cases against him 
were finally dismissed. The Fourteenth Amendment, conferring the right 
of citizenship upon the negroes, was declared adopted. France complied 
with the demand of the United States for the withdrawal of French troops 
from Mexico. The Atlantic cable was successfully laid. Alaska was 



424 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

purchased from Russia for $7,200,000. General Grant, the Republican can- 
didate, was elected next president. 

618. Thought Questions. — If Lincoln had lived to the close of his 
second administration, in what respects would the history of the seceded 
states have been different ? In what respects were the ex-slaves of the 
South unfit to vote ? When only can universal suffrage result in good 
government ? "What presidents besides Johnson had bitter opposition in 
Congress? Were any of these impeached ? In what way did the United 
States enforce the Monroe Doctrine during this administration? In what 
presidential elections did Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas take no part ? 
Why ? Why were the cases against Jefferson Davis dismissed ? 

Grant's Administration. 

Two Terms: 1869-1877. 

619. Character and Services of the New President.— 

Ulysses S. Grant was born in 1822 at Point Pleasant, in Ohio. 
Graduated from West Point in the class of 1843, he fought 
with credit in the Mexican War. In 1854 he resigned his 
place in the army and engaged in the leather trade. He re' 
entered the army in 1861, and was made a colonel. He was 
rapidly advanced in rank and responsibility until he was placed 
in command of all the Union armies. After serving two terms 
as president he made a tour of the world. His last years were 
clouded by business reverses. He died on July 23, 1885. 

Grant was a very successful general. To him, more than to 
any other commander, was due the final success of the Union 
forces. He was a simple-hearted soldier, loyal to his friends, 
but unversed in civil life. 

620. Treaty of Washington. — In 187 1 commissioners from 
England and the United States met at Washington to settle 
" all causes of difference between England and the United 
States." The treaty agreed upon provided for the settlement 
of the disputes between the two nations by arbitration, a mode 



RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 425 

of adjusting international contentions which marks a forward 
step in civilization. The disputed questions settled were as 
follows : — 

(i) Alaba7na Claims. — During the war the Confederate 
authorities had contracted for several ships to be built in 
England, the chief of which was the Alabama (§ 584). The 
United States claimed that the damage done by these vessels 
should be paid for by the English government. These claims 
were called the '* Alabama claims," and were referred for set- 
tlement to five commissioners, one each from England, United 
States, Italy, Brazil, and Switzerland. They met at Geneva, 
Switzerland, and awarded $15,500,000 to the United States, 
which amount was to be paid into the treasury of the United 
States and distributed to the owners of the property destroyed 
by the vessels built in England. 

(2) The Northwest Boundary. — The dispute concerning 
the northwestern boundary between Washington and Van- 
couver's Island was left to the decision of the Emperor of 
Germany. He declared in favor of the boundary-line claimed 
by the United States. 

(3) Fisheries. — The dispute over the right of citizens of 
the United States to fish in the waters along Newfoundland 
was settled by commissioners, who decided that they should 
have the privilege of fishing in these waters for twelve years 
upon the payment of $5,500,000 to Great Britain. 

621. The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified by the neces- 
sary three-fourths of the states in 1870. This amendment 
provided that no law should be passed to prevent citizens 
from voting on account of " race, color, or previous condition 
of servitude." 



426 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



622. The Pacific Railroad. — The great raihoad connecting 

Omaha, Nebraska, with San Francisco, California (a distance 
of 1900 miles), and uniting the East with the West, was com- 
pleted in 1869. Three other transcontinental lines of railroad 



1 



/" 



X 




Marshall Pass, showing route of Pacific Railroad through the mountains. 

have been built since then, so that one may now travel across 
the United States in as short a time as the trip from New York 
to Boston required a century ago. 

623. Great Fires. — Several great fires occurred during this 
administration, of which the chief was the Chicago fire of 
October 8-9, 187 1. Five square miles were ravaged by the 
flames, twenty thousand houses were burned, property to the 
amount of two hundred million dollars was consumed, and 
over two hundred and fifty persons perished. 

About a year later Boston was partly destroyed by a great 
fire, — the loss amounting to $80,000,000. The sufferings of 
the people in these cities were greatly alleviated by generous 



RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 42/ 

contributions from all parts of the United States and foreign 
nations. The burnt districts in both cities were soon covered 
by larger and better buildings than before. 

624. Political Affairs. — Grant's administration was marked 
by great political excitement. The South was struggling to 
free itself from Radical misrule, — Republican administrations 
created by the "carpet-baggers," and supported mainly by 
negro votes. A state of affairs bordering on war existed there 
until, by the elections of 1876, the Southern whites regained 
full control of the states. 

During the time of the Reconstruction regime a secret 
society called the Kii Klux Klan was organized in the South to 
check and resist Radical rule and to hold the negroes in subjec- 
tion. This organization often resorted to violence, and crimes 
were committed in its name, but it was the chief means of 
preventing the lately enfranchised negroes and the adventurers 
who misled them from so dominating the Southern states as to 
destroy the very foundations of society. 

625. Grangers. — In 1868 the secret society of Grangers 
was organized mainly by farmers in the northwestern states 
and spread rapidly through the South and West. Its object 
was to unite the farmers on matters of common interest, as 
well as to benefit them in other ways. 

626. Reelection of Grant. — One wing of the Republican 
party, composed of those who were dissatisfied with the Con- 
gressional policy of reconstruction, became known as the 
" Liberal Republicans." They hoped that by selecting a plat- 
form and a candidate acceptable to the Democrats, they might 
defeat the Radical Republican party. They nominated Horace 
Greeley,^ the editor of the Ahw York Tribune, for the presi- 

1 Greeley had been a life-long enemy of the Democratic party and was not sup- 
ported very enthusiastically by the Democrats. He died of disappointment before 
the meeting of the Electoral College and the opposition vote was scattered among 
several candidates. 



423 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



1 



dency. The Democratic convention endorsed the Liberal 
RepubUcan platform and candidate. 

The regular Republican party renominated Grant for the 
presidency with Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, for vice- 
president. The electoral vote stood 286 for Grant and Wilson 
to 63 for the opposition.^ 

627. Corruption in Office. — During Grant's two terms many 
political scandals were unearthed. These were due doubtless 
in a large measure to laxity in administration, consequent upon 
the war, and also to the credulity of the president, who was a 
famous soldier, but not well adapted to great civil responsibili- 
ties. • 

The Credit Mobilier was a company organized to build the 
Pacific Railroad. It was discovered in 1873 that measures 
promoting its interest had been passed through Congress by 
means of bribery. 

Back Salary Grab. — In 1872 a bill was passed by Congress 
advancing the salaries of many of the officers of the government. 
The president's salary was raised from $25,000 to $50,000 per 
annum. The salary of a congressman was raised from $5000 
to $7500 per annum. The act made the advance in salaries 
date from the beginning of the current term. The law was 
nicknamed the "back-salary grab," and provoked such opposi- 
tion throughout the country that it was speedily repealed, 
except as to the salaries of the president and the judges of the 
Supreme Court. 

Whiskey Ri7ig. — In 1875, it was discovered that a ^'whiskey 
ring," composed of prominent officials, had colluded with 
distillers in the West in defrauding the government of the 
revenue on whiskey. Several persons of wealth, social influ- 
ence, and high standing were tried, convicted, and punished 
for this violation of the laws of the land. 

1 Seventeen of the votes against Grant were not counted by Congress. The total 
number of votes against him was 80. 



RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 429 

Impeachment of Belkfiap. — In 1876, Secretary of War 
Belknap was impeached for receiving bribes for appointment 
of officers. He escaped conviction by resigning his office. 

628. Indian Troubles. — Two insurrections occurred among 
the Indians during Grant's administration. The first was 
among the Modocs in Oregon. They were subdued after a 
year's fighting. 

The Sioux I?idiaJis in Montana, under their chief, Sitting 
Bull, defied the Federal authorities. In June, 1876, General 
Custer, with a small band of 250 men, attacked a large force of 
these Indians, and he and all his men were killed after a brave 
resistance. The Sioux then retreated into British America. 

629. Financial Matters. Fa7iic of iSyj. — A financial 
panic occurred in 1873, and its effects continued to be felt for 
several years. It was caused by the lavish expenditures of 
the war, a series of poor crops, the too rapid building of rail- 
roads, the contraction of the currency, and the demonetization 
of silver. From 1868 to 1872 the railroad mileage of the United 
States increased 50 per cent. The panic started from the 
failure of a banking house in Philadelphia, which was largely 
concerned in the Northern Pacific Railroad. 

De7tiofietizatioji of Silver. — Early in 1873 a coinage act was 
passed in which the silver dollar, which had always been legal 
tender, was dropped from the list of coins to be minted. The 
silver dollar was worth more at this time than the gold dollar. 
The effect of the omission of the silver dollar from the coinage 
act was to destroy the full legal tender power of silver, stop 
its free coinage, and thereby lessen its value. This omission 
was hardly noticed at the time, and its effect was understood 
neither by the people nor by many members of Congress. 

Resumption of Specie Fay7nents. — The " greenbacks " ^ which 
Congress had issued during the war were worth much 

1 Paper money, the back of each bill being printed in green ink. 



430 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



less than their face value, because Congress was unable to 
redeem them in specie. In 1875 an act was passed declaring 
that on January i, 1879, specie payments would be resumed. 
Greenbacks at once rose to par, and have since remained on 
the same level as gold and silver. 

630. The Centennial in 1876. — In spite of the financial 
stringency, the looth anniversary of the Declaration of Inde- 




%:4^mi^^^SfT^%-^i'^ 



^"^TiroitTj^ 



Centennial Exhibition Buildings, Philadelphia, 1876. 

pendence was celebrated with great success at Philadelphia by 
an International Exposition. It was followed by a series of 
centennial anniversaries at several historic spots, commemorat- 
ing important events of the Revolutionary War. 

631. The Centennial State. — Colorado was admitted into 
the Union in 1876, and hence it is called the '• Centennial State." 



632. The Election of 1876. — The Republicans nominated 
for president Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and W. A. 
Wheeler, of New York. A strong element of the Republi- 
can party endeavored to renominate Grant for a third term, 
but the opposition was too decided. 



RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 43 I 

The Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, 
for the presidency, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for 
the vice-presidency. 

The campaign was very exciting. The congressional elec- 
tions in 1874 had shown a reaction toward the Democratic 
party. At first the election of Tilden was conceded by the 
Republican press, but soon afterward the result of the elec- 
tions in the states of South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida 
was claimed to be uncertain. In South Carolina and Florida 
many Democratic votes were thrown out, on the ground that 
Republican voters had been intimidated and so prevented from 
voting. The " Returning Boards" ^ in these two states declared 
the Republican electors chosen. The Democratic electors 
charged fraud, and claimed that they had been elected ; so 
both sets of electors met and sent in their votes to Congress. 
In Louisiana, the Returning Board, refusing to comply with 
the law in many points, declared the Republican electors 
chosen, and the governor, who was held in his place by Fed- 
eral troops, gave them certificates. McEnery, the Democratic 
candidate for governor, claimed the election, and gave certifi- 
cates to the Democratic electors. Oregon also sent in two 
sets of returns. One of the Republican electors was declared 
disqualified by the governor, who appointed instead a Demo- 
crat to serve as elector. 

Not counting the votes of the states of South Carolina, 
Florida, Louisiana, and Oregon, Tilden received 184 votes, 
Hayes, 163. A joint rule adopted by Congress in 1865 pro- 
vided that disputed electoral votes could only be counted by 
the consent of both Houses. If this rule had been followed, 
Tilden would have been declared elected, inasmuch as he had 



1 " Returning Boards" were created by law during the Reconstruction troubles, 
and invested with extraordinary powers over the counting of votes in disputed elec- 
tions. They could throw out votes and manipulate the figures as they chose, and no 
appeal could be taken from their decision. 



432 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

a majority of the electoral votes about which no question 
could be made. The Democratic House wished now to follow 
this rule. The Republican Senate refused to abide by it. 

633. The Electoral Commission. — To settle the dispute, 
which was not provided for in the Constitution, the Electoral 
Commission was created. It consisted of five senators (two 
Democrats and three Republicans), five representatives (three 
Democrats and two Republicans), and five supreme judges. 
The act creating the commission provided that two of the 
judges should be Republicans, and two Democrats, the four 
judges to choose the fifth themselves.^ A Republican was 
chosen, thus constituting the commission eight Republicans and 
seven Democrats. The commission, by a party vote of 8 to 7, 
decided in favor of the Republican electors for South Carolina, 
Florida, and Louisiana, counted the Republican instead of the 
Democratic elector from Oregon, and thus gave the presidency 
to the RepubUcan candidate. Hayes and Wheeler thus re- 
ceived an electoral vote of 185, while Tilden and Hendricks 
received 184. 

634. Summary. — A treaty with England in 187 1 provided for the 
peaceful settlement of the Alabama claims, the Northwest boundary, and 
the Fishery dispute. The Fifteenth Amendment, giving negroes the right 
to vote, was declared adopted. The first Pacific Railroad was completed. 
Fires at Chicago and Boston caused great loss of property. Grant was 
reelected over Horace Greeley, the candidate of the Liberal Republicans 
and Democrats. The administration was characterized by much corruption 
in office. Silver was demonetized and specie payments were resumed. 
The Centennial Exposition was held at Philadelphia. Colorado was ad- 
mitted. The Electoral Commission settled the disputed presidential elec- 
tion by declaring Hayes, the Republican candidate, elected over Tilden, 
his Democratic opponent. 

^ Doubtless Judge David Davis, an Independent Democrat, would have been 
selected had he not resigned his office just at this time to accept a senatorship from 
Illinois. The choice then fell on Judge Bradley, a Republican. 



RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 433 

635, Thought Questions. — Name the presidents who owed their 
election to military renown. If the principle of " arbitration " in the 
settlement of national disputes had been recognized from the beginning of 
our history, what war could most readily have been averted ? Were any 
of our wars inevitable ? Recall the peculiar circumstances of the presi- 
dential election of 1800; of 1824. In what ways did the contest of 1876 
differ from the others .'' 



Topical Analysis (Reconstruction Period). 

604. The New President. 

f Lincoln's plan. 
605-607. Reconstruction Plans. \ Johnson's plan. 

(^ Plan of Congress. 

608. Distrust of the President : By Congress. 

. T^,-. ^^,.«xx r The Fourteenth Amendment. 

609. Readmission of the States. ■{ 



Q 



o 



(^ Final readmission. 

610. Result of Reconstruction T The "iron-clad" oath. 

Policy. \ " Carpet-bag" governments, 

f Tenure of Office Bill. 

611. Impeachment of the President. -{ Johnson's opposition. 

(^ Impeachment and trial 
( The judges. 

612. Jefferson Davis Brought to Trial. ^ The indictment. 

[^ The result. 

613. Maximilian in Mexico. 

/- /n^ *i, i- ^ t-, r The leader of the enterprise. 

614. The Atlantic Cable. < ^ . ^ , , , 

[^ Laymg of the cable. 

f Discovery and name. 

615. Purchase of Alaska. { Purchase by United States. 

[ Extent of territory. 

/- ^ -r^ -3 j^- » -r,, ^- '' Candidates and platform. 

616. Presidential Election. -! ^ , , , , . 

(^ Result of the election. 

619. The New President. 

f Alabama claims. 

620. Treaty of Washington. \ Northwest boundary. 



m < ^ 

^ W o^^ [^ Fishery dispute. 






621. The Fifteenth Amendment. 

The first road. 
Subsequent roads. 



622. The Pacific Railroad, i 



434 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



623. 

624. 
625. 
626. 

627. 



/^ i T^- f At Chicago. 

Great Fires. < , ^, "^ 
{ At boston. 

Political Affairs. | l^^'^f' °^ " Carpet-baggers." 

[ The ku Klux Klan. 
The Grangers. 

Reelection of Grant. I Y'' "^ ^^P^^^^^^^" P^^'V- 
I Result of the election. 

f The Credit Mobilier. 

Corruption in Office, .j ^^^ ^^'^ ^^^^'^ ^'^^^ 
I The whiskey ring. 

I Impeachment of Belknap. 
( The Modocs in Oregon. 



62S. Indian Troubles. ^ ^, ^. . ,, 

1^ 1 he bioux in Montana. 

f Panic of 1873. 

629. Financial Matters. -{ Demonetization of silver. 

[ Resumption of specie payments. 

The Centennial at Philadelphia. 

Colorado Admitted. 

f The candidates. 



630 
631 

632, 633. Presidential Election. <( 



Contested result. 
Settlement by Electoral Com- 
mission. 



RECENT EVENTS. 435 



RECENT EVENTS. 

(Hayes to McKinlky.) 

Hayes's Administration. 

One Term: 1877-1SS1. 

636. Life and Services of the New President. — Ruther- 
ford B. Hayes was born in 
Ohio in the same year as j^p " 
President Grant, 1822. He ^ .^ 
was a lawyer by profession, 

but rose to the rank of briga- ^^fe. 1 

dier-general in the War be- Y^<^ 

tween the States. He served - 

one term in Congress, and 
three terms as governor of 
Ohio. After one term as 
president he lived quietly at 
his home in Ohio, where he 
died in 1893. President Hayes 

was a man of great purity and j 

dignity of character. His in- Rutherford b. Hayes. ! 

fluence was wisely used to { 

mitigate sectional feeling, and to promote justice and sound I 

ideas in the administration of the government. 1 

I 

637. Character of the Period. — This period was charac- • 

terized by steady growth. The country was recovering from 
the results of the war and gathering new strength. The 
administration was an unusually quiet one. There is little of 
importance to be recorded in its history. 



436 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

638. The Southern States. — The Southern Democrats 
regained control of all the Southern States. Soon after 
Hayes became president he withdrew the Federal troops. 
Without their presence the Republican governors of South 
Carolina and Louisiana could not support their claims. The 
Supreme Court of Florida, though Republican in its personnel, 
refused to sustain the claim of the Republican candidate for 
governor. The other Southern states had already become 
Democratic. 

639. Labor Troubles The early part of the administra- 
tion was marked by serious labor disturbances. Thousands of 
persons were unable to secure employment and the country was 
filled with tramps. In 1877 serious riots occurred among rail- 
road employees. Concerted action was taken by them all over 
the country. The most serious troubles were at Pittsburg, 
Chicago, and St. Louis. These riots cost about one hundred 
lives and more than three million dollars' worth of property. 

640. Financial Legislation. — In 1878 silver, which had 
been demonetized in 1873, was restored to its place as legal ten- 
der.^ The Resumption Act (§ 629) went into effect during this 
administration. It restored confidence in the financial soundness 
of the government. In consequence of this restoration of con- 
fidence in the ability of the government to meet its obligations, 
the secretary of the treasury borrowed money at a much lower 
rate of interest than the bonds already issued bore. The new 
bonds were sold bearing a lower rate of interest, and with the 
money thus secured bonds bearing a higher rate of interest were 
paid as they matured. This was called refunding the national debt. 

1 The bill was called the Bland Bill, from the name of the congressman who intro- 
duced it. It did not provide for the free coinage of silver. An amendment by 
Senator Allison was adopted requiring the secretary of the treasury to purchase 
and coin into dollars monthly not less than two million dollars' worth of silver, and 
not more than four million dollars' worth. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



437 



641 . Inventions. — The telephone and the electric light were 
perfected during this period. The telephone was perfected by 
Bell and Graham in 1877. The electric light was introduced 
in 1878. Edison in 1877 gave to the world the phonograph. 

642. Yellow Fever. — In 1878-79 yellow fever prevailed in 
many places in the Southern states, especially in the Mississippi 
valley. Of the twenty thousand persons who had this fever, 
about one-third died from its effects. Since that time medical 
science has shown that yellow fever can be excluded from this 
country by disinfection and quarantine. 

643. The Presidential Election of 1880. — Strenuous ef- 
forts were again made in the Republican party to nominate 
ex-President Grant for a third term. After a long wrangle the 
Republican convention nominated James A. Garfield of Ohio 
for president, and Chester A. Arthur of New York for vice- 
president. 

The Democrats nominated General W. S. Hancock of Penn- 
sylvania for president, and William H. English of Indiana for 
vice-president. 

The Greenback party nominated James B. Weaver for presi- 
dent, but he received no electoral vote. 

Hancock received the electoral vote of the " Solid South," ^ 
Nevada, and California,^ a total of 155. Garfield and Arthur 
received the remainder of the electoral votes, 214, and were 
accordingly elected. 

644. Summary. — President Hayes withdrew the United States troops 
that had been upholding the carpet-bag governments in the South, and 
the state administrations in this section at once passed into the hands of 
the Democratic party. A bill remonetizing silver was passed. The process 
of refunding the national debt began. The telephone, electric light, and 

1 All of the states that had belonged to the Southern Confederacy voted the 
Democratic ticket, and hence were called the " SoUd South." 

2 One of the votes of California was cast for Garfield. 



43S 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



phonograph were introduced. A severe yellow-fever epidemic raged in the 
South. In the presidential election, Garfield, the Republican candidate, 
was elected. 

645. Thought Questions. — Define the following terms : legal tender ; 
demonetization of silver; resumption of specie payments; refunding the 
debt. 

Administration of Garfield and Arthur. 

One Term: 1881-1885. 

646. Life and Services of Garfield. — James A. Garfield, 
like his two predecessors, was a native of Ohio, where he 

was born in 1831. Reared 
in poverty he worked his 
way through college, and 
was graduated from Wil- 
liams. He studied law and 
taught school in his native 
state. He served for a while 
in the army during the war, 
winning the rank of major- 
general. Elected to Con- 
gress, he left the army and 
thereafter devoted himself 
to political life. He was 
sent to the House of Repre- 
sentatives four times in suc- 
cession, and had just been elected to the Senate when he 
received the nomination to the presidency. 

President Garfield was well equipped for the duties of the 
presidency. A man of culture, and versed in public life, his 
knowledge of civil aifairs gave promise of a wholesome admin- 
istration. 

647. Appointments to OfRce. — Soon after his accession to 
the presidency Garfield became involved in a wrangle with the 




James A. Garfield. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



439 



Senate over appointments to office. The senators from New 
York opposed the confirmation of the president's appointee to 
the collectorship of the port of New York. Being unable to 
defeat the confirmation of the appointee through what is known 
as the '* courtesy of the Senate " ^ they resigned their seats in 
Congress. This increased the bitterness between the two fac- 
tions of the Republican party, and indirectly led to the tragic 
death of the president. 

648. Assassination of Garfield. — Charles J. Guiteau was 
a weak-minded, disappointed office-seeker. In order, as he 
said, *' to make Arthur president, and unite the Republican 
party," he planned the death of the president. On July 2, 
1 88 1, at a railway station in Washington, he accomplished his 
purpose by shooting President Garfield in the side. For twelve 
weeks the sufterer lingered between life and death, and on 
September 19 died at Elbe- 
ron, N. J. The entire people 
mourned his death. 

649. The Accession of 
Arthur. — By the death of 
Garfield, Vice-President 
Arthur became chief magis- 
trate of the United States 
and served the remainder 
of the term. 

650. Life and Services 
of President Arthur. — 

Chester Allan Arthur was 

born in Vermont in 1830. He was college-bred, and like 

Garfield, taught school and studied law. He held the col- 

1 The "courtesy of the Senate" requires all the senators of one political party to 
vote on questions of official appointments in accordance with the wishes of the senators 
(of tlieir party) from the state in which the office to be filled is situated. 




Chester A. Arthur. 



440 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

lectorship of the port of New York under Grant's administra- 
tion and was put oa the ticket as vice-president to please the 
" Stalwarts," as those favoring the nomination of Grant for 
the third term were called. He made a good president. He 
died in New York in November, 1886. 

651. Star Route Frauds. — In 1881 it was discovered that 
the government was being defrauded of several million dollars 
per year by the contractors of the " star routes " ^ in the West. 
Although several prominent officials were tried, and for lack of 
sufficient evidence were acquitted, the investigations stopped 
the abuse. 

652. Polar Expeditions. — The New York Herald sent out 
an expedition in the shi-g /ea?i7iette, under Captain De Long, to ex- 
plore the Arctic seas north of Behring's Strait. The ship was 
caught by icebergs, and after drifting several months was 
crushed. Some of the party, after terrible sufferings, reached 
the coast of Siberia. 

An expedition under Lieutenant Greely located on Lady 
Franklin Bay, west of Greenland, and not receiving aid when 
expected, resulted in disaster. When the party was rescued in 
June, 1883, only seven of the twenty-four had survived the cold 
and privation of the Arctic winter. 

653. Important Legislation. Law a gamst Polygamy. — In 
1882 Congress passed a severe anti-polygamy law. The 
religion of the Mormons allows polygamy. Utah, where the 
Mormons live, had not been admitted to the Union because 
if it should become a state it could pass its own laws on this 
subject. 

Civil Service Reform. — In 1883 Congress passed a bill to 
provide for the filling of many offices through competitive 

1 In the United States when mail is carried in any other way than by rail the 
route is called a " star route." 



RECENT EVENTS. 



441 



examinations on the basis of merit, without regard to the 
political affiliations of the applicants for positions. This 
reform makes tenure of office more certain, and secures better 
service for the government. It was opposed by politicians in 
both parties, who believed that "to the victor belong the spoils." 
The Tariff of i88j. — An attempt was made in 1882 to 
reduce the tariff, but it failed. It became manifest that the 




East River Ferry (between Brooklyn and New 
York) in 1746. 



Brooklyn Bridge. 

high tariff which had 
been needed to pay off 
the war debt was no 
longer necessary, as the 
treasury had an increas- 
ing surplus of money. 

Accordingly, in 1883 a bill was passed slightly lowering the 

import charges, chiefly on articles not produced in this country. 
Letter postage in 1883 was reduced from three cents to two 

cents per one-half ounce.-^ Postal notes were introduced the 

same year. 

1 In 1885 letter postage was further reduced to two cents per ounce or fraction 
thereof. 



442 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

654. The Brooklyn Bridge. — Work on the bridge connect- 
ing New York and Brooklyn had been begun in 1870. It was 
completed in May, 1883. This famous bridge is 5,989 feet 
long, and its cost was $16,000,000. 

655. Standard Time. — During the same year the railroads 
adopted what is known as standard time. Local time for the 
meridians of 75°, 90°, 105°, and 120° was adopted as standard 
time for the Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific divisions, 
respectively. All places within any one division use the same 
time. When it is twelve o'clock in the Eastern division it is 
one, two, and three hours earlier, respectively, in the Central, 
Mountain, and Pacific divisions. 

656. Disasters. — The summer of 1881 was marked by a 
very protracted drouth. Crops all over the country were great- 
ly damaged. Many forest fires occurred. Of these the most 
destructive were in Michigan. In this state as many as five 
thousand persons were rendered homeless, and several hun- 
dred lost their lives. 

The next year was notable for the great floods. The Ohio 
and Mississippi rivers rose higher than ever before, producing 
great overflows and causing immense damage to property, as 
well as the loss of many lives. The Mississippi River was, in 
places, over one hundred miles wide. 

657» Expositions. — The great Cotton Exposition was held 
in Atlanta, Georgia, in 188 1. It showed that the Southern 
states had adapted themselves with wonderful success to the 
changed conditions brought about by the late war. 

In the same year the Ceiiteiinial Celebration of the Sur- 
render of Cornwallis was held at Yorktown, Virginia. 

Three years later a World's Exposition was held at New 
Orleans. It served to promote trade relations with Mexico 
and Central America. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



443 



658. The Cincinnati Riot. — In 1884 a riot occurred in Cin- 
cinnati on account of delay in the courts. Over one hundred 
lives were lost before it was suppressed. 



659. Election of 1884. — In 1884 the question of reducing 
duties on foreign imports became a national issue. These 
duties were still maintained at nearly 
the same rates as had been levied 
during the War between the States. 
They yielded a revenue beyond the 
needs of the government and thus 
caused an increasing surplus in the 
national treasury. 

The Republicans nominated 
James G. Blaine, of Maine, for the presi- 
dency, and John A. Logan, of Illinois, for the 
vice-presidency. Their platform proposed 
reduction in the revenues " by such methods 
as will relieve the tax-payer without injuring 
the laborers or the great productive interests 
of the country." 

The Democratic platform declared the 
protective tariff a burdensome tax no longer 
necessary, and demanded a tax " for revenue 
only." They nominated Grover Cleveland, 
of New York, for the presidency, and 
Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for the 
vice-presidency. 

Nominations for the presidency and vice- 
presidency were also made by the Prohibi- 
tionists (J. P. St. John, of Kansas, and Wm. 
Daniel, of Maryland), and the Greenback Labor and Anti- 
Monopoly party (B. F. Butler, of Massachusetts, and A. M. 
West, of Mississippi). The Prohibitionists cast 151,809 votes, 
and the Anti-Monopolists 133,825. 




Washington Monument, 
Washington, D. C, 
completed 1885. 



444 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Cleveland and Hendricks were elected, receiving 219 electoral 
votes. Their opponents received 182. Thus for the first time 
in a quarter of a century the Democrats elected and seated a 
president. 

660. Summary. — A few months after his inauguration, President 
Garfield was assassinated by a weak-minded, disappointed office-seeker. 
Vice-President Arthur succeeded to the presidency. " Star-route " frauds 
perpetrated on the government by contractors for carrying the mails in the 
West were discovered and checked. Two unsuccessful polar expeditions 
were made. A stringent law against polygamy was enacted. A civil 
service law making merit, rather than political service, the basis of appoint- 
ment to ofiice was passed. Expositions were held in Atlanta and New 
Orleans. A law reducing letter postage, and the adoption of standard time 
by the railroads proved of great benefit. In the presidential election Cleve- 
land, the Democratic candidate, was successful. 

661. Thought Questions. — If polygamy is part of the religious belief 
of the Mormons, how can anti-polygamy laws of Congress be justified (see 
Constitution, Amendment I) ? How does civil service reform secure better 
official service ? 



Cleveland's First Administration. 
One Term : 1885-1889. 

662. Life and Services of the President Grover Cleve- 
land was born in New Jersey in 1837. ^^^ father removed to 
New York in 1841. Left an orphan by the death of his father, 
his youth was spent in poverty. He studied in the Academy 
at Clinton, made himself a lawyer, was assistant district attor- 
ney, sheriff, and mayor at Buffalo, and was elected governor of 
New York, in 1882, by nearly 200,000 majority. He served 
(1893-97) a second term as president. Before the end of his 
second term he lost the confidence and support of the majority 
of his party. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



445 




663. The Reform President. — Cleveland won the name of 
the Reform President by the changes which he proposed in the 
administration of the gov- 
ernment, but the Republi- 
cans had a majority in the 
Senate, and so the Demo- 
cratic party was unable to 
make the changes proposed 
in the tariff. President 
Cleveland carried out the 
civil service reform idea 
more thoroughly than his 
predecessors had done. He 
was noted for his moderate 
course in regard to remov- 
als from office. Grover Cleveland. 

664. Deaths. — On July 23, 1885, ex-President Grant died. 
Universal sorrow was manifested and his funeral was such 
as befitted one to whom the Union owed so much. Several 
prominent Confederate generals, among them General Jos. E. 
Johnston, officiated at his funeral. 

On the 25th of November, 1885, the vice-presidency became 
vacant by the death of Vice-President Hendricks. 

665. Important Legislation. Presidential Succession. — By 
a law passed in 1792, the president pro tempore of the Senate 
and the speaker of the House were to succeed in order to the 
presidency in case of death, resignation, or disability of both 
the president and vice-president. The death of Vice-President 
Hendricks occurred when Congress was not in session, that is, 
when there was neither a president /r^ tcDipore of the Senate nor a 
speaker of the House. Thus, if the president were to die, there 
would be no one to succeed to the position, and the country would 
be left without a chief magistrate. In 1886 a law was passed 



44^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

changing the order of succession to the presidency, and pre- 
scribing that cabinet officers shall succeed to this position in a 
certain specified order.-^ 

Counting of Electoral Vote. — The peril incurred in 1876 in 
counting the electoral vote led ten years later to the passage of 
an act providing more definitely against the recurrence of such 
a crisis. The act provided that the electoral votes which both 
houses agree to be legal shall be counted. In case of disagree- 
ment, those votes are to be counted which have the certificate 
of the governor attached. 

In 1887 the Interstate Railroad Commission was established 
by Congress to regulate railroad transportation between states. 

In the same year a more stringent bill was passed to prevent 
polygamy among the Mormons (§ 653). 

The year following Congress passed a law prohibiting 
Chinese immigration for a period of ten years. 

666. Labor Troubles. — The quarrel between labor and 
capital attracted attention from time to time for many years. 
It culminated, in 1886, in strikes all over the United States. 
In Chicago the strikers manifested their sympathy with the 
Anarchists (chiefly foreigners who were opposed to government 
of any kind). A fight occurred with the police and about 
eighty persons were killed. This trouble was started by a 
dynamite bomb thrown by Anarchists among the policemen. 
The bomb exploded and killed seven of the officers. The 
Anarchist leaders were arrested and tried, and four were ex- 
ecuted. The others were sentenced to long terms of imprison- 
ment, but were liberated in 1893 on the ground that they had 
not been justly treated in the trial. 

1 The following is the order of presidential succession in the cabinet : (i) secretary 
of state ; (2) secretary of the treasury ; (3) secretary of war ; (4) attorney-general ; 
(5) postmaster-general; (6) secretary of the navy; (7) secietary of the interior; 
(8) secretary of agriculture. 




Copyright by Charles T. Root 
LIBERTY ENLIGHTENING THE WORLD. 



A Statue in the Harbor of New York City, given to the American People by the 
People of France. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



447 



667. The Charleston Earthquake. — The South Atlantic 
seaboard was visited by severe earthquake shocks in 1886. 
The center of the disturbance was near Charleston, S. C. Im- 
mense damage was done to property. Nearly every house in the 
city was either destroyed or much injured (August 31, 1886). 

668. The Statue of Liberty. — The French people, to show 
their admiration for the United States, presented to the people 




Houses Destroyed by the Earthquake. 

of our country a statue of " Liberty Enlightening the World." 
The statue was made in France, by the artist Bartholdi, at 
a cost of a quarter of a million dollars. It is the largest work 
of the kind in the world, its height being 292 feet. The 
interior of the head contains standing room for forty persons. 
It faces the entrance to New York harbor. 

669. Political Questions. — The tariff on imports added to 
the internal revenues on liquor and tobacco yielded the govern- 
ment an annual surplus of $100,000,000 after all the expenses 
had been paid. President Cleveland recommended to Con- 
gress, in December, 1887, such a reduction in the tariff as 



448 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

would make the receipts and the expenses of the government 
more nearly equal. The Mills ^ bill, which passed the House of 
Representatives, but was defeated in the Senate, was intended 
to carry out the policy recommended by the president. The 
House was Democratic and the Senate was Republican. So 
the issue was made before the people in the presidential elec- 
tion on the tariff policy of President Cleveland. 

670. Presidential Election of 1888. — The Democrats re- 
nominated Cleveland, with Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio, for 
vice-president. Their platform demanded- a reduction of the 
tariff to the revenue basis. The RepubUcans nominated Ben- 
jamin Harrison, of Indiana, for president, and Levi P. Morton, 
of New York, for vice-president. Their platform advocated 
protection for American industries. 

The Prohibitionists and the United Labor party put up can- 
didates also, but they got no electoral votes. 

Cleveland was defeated, the Republican candidates receiving 
233 electoral votes to Cleveland's 168. The popular vote for 
Cleveland exceeded that for Harrison by 94,611. 

671. Summary. — President Cleveland carried out with great firmness 
his ideas of reform in the civil service. The deaths of General Grant 
and Vice-President Hendricks occurred during this administration. There 
were quarrels between capital and labor in various parts of the country 
and a conflict between Anarchists and the police of Chicago. An 
earthquake at Charleston, S. C, did great damage. The statue of 
" Liberty Enlightening the World " was presented to the United States 
by the French people. Laws regulating the presidential succession, pro- 
viding for the settlement of disputed elections, establishing an Interstate 
Railway Commission, and forbidding Chinese immigration were passed. 
In the presidential election, the reduction of the tariff was made an issue 
between the parties. Cleveland was beaten for reelection by Harrison, the 
Republican candidate. 

672. Thought Questions. — Who was the last Democratic president 
before Cleveland ? What are the arguments in favor of restricting Chinese 

1 So named from its author, Hon. Roger Q. Mills of Texas. 




THE 



I n c. 

UNITED STATES 



RECENT EVENTS. 



449 



immigration? Why do the Chinese come to this country? Why do they 
settle in the West ? What immigrants have been most valuable to us ? 
What sort of immigrants are undesirable ? What political question was 
most prominent during this administration ? How^ may a candidate 
receiving a minority of the popular vote be elected president? 



Administration of Benjamin Harrison. 



One Term: 18S9-1893. 



673. Life and Services of the New President Benjamin 

Harrison (grandson of President William Henry Harrison) 
was born in Ohio on the 20th of August, 1833. After gradu- 
ating at Miami University, 
and studying law, he went 
to Indiana to practice his 
profession. He entered 
the Union army in 1861, 
and had reached the rank 
of brevet-brigadier general 
when the war closed. Re- 
turning then to Indianapo- 
lis he resumed the practice 
of law. He was elected to 
the United States Senate 
in 1880. 

674. The Pan-Ameri- 

Benjamm Harrison. Can COngrCSS. The Fatl- 

American {Pan is a Greek 
word meaning '' all ") Congress was a body composed of 
sixty-six delegates from eighteen of the North, Central, and 
South American governments. They met in Washington on 




450 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

October 2, 1889, and, after spending six weeks visiting lead- 
ing cities, continued their deliberations until May, 1890. 
The object of the meeting, as stated, was the promotion of 
friendly feeling and closer intercourse between the American 
peoples. One useful recommendation made by the congress 
was that the nations represented should settle their disputes 
by arbitration rather than war. 

675. Congressional Legislation. — The Mc Kinky Bill — 
In the campaign of 1888 the Republicans had committed them- 
selves to the policy of increasing the tariff ; and as they now 
had control of both Houses of Congress they proceeded to 
pass a new tariff law, which was named from its framer ^ the 
McKinley Bill. Under this tariff the duties on a large num- 
ber of imported articles were increased, while they were re- 
duced or altogether removed on others. The law contained, 
besides, a section which authorized the president to impose 
duties on articles otherwise free, if they came from foreign 
countries in which duties were levied on exports from this 
country. This was known as the "Reciprocity Policy," and 
was suggested by Secretary of State James G. Blaine. Trea- 
ties were afterward made with some of the South American 
countries, as well as with Spain (in the interest of her 
American possessions, especially Cuba) under the provisions 
of this law. 

Silver Again. — The advocates of the free coinage of silver, 
not satisfied with the Bland Bill (§ 640, note), continued to 
demand legislation in favor of " the white metal." The result 
was a compromise called the Sherman Act, from Senator John 
Sherman of Ohio. One of its provisions was that the secre- 
tary of the treasury should buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver 
monthly, and pay for it in treasury notes. 

1 Hon. William McKinley, member of Congress from Ohio. 



RECENT EVENTS. 45 I 

676. Diplomatic Troubles. — President Harrison's adminis- 
tration was noted for an unusual number of disputes with 
foreign powers. None of them, however, led to an actual con- 
flict of arms. 

The Mafia. — One of these disputes was with Italy. It 
resulted from a lynching in New Orleans. The chief of police 
of that city was assassinated, and the evidence pointed pretty 
conclusively to some resident Italians who were members 
of a dangerous secret society called the Mafia. As the 
courts failed to convict the murderers, the indignant citizens 
broke into the jail where they were still confined, and put them 
to death. The Italian government protested and demanded 
reparation of the United States, on the ground that some of 
the men killed were Italian subjects. The secretary of state, 
on behalf of the United States, disclaimed responsibility, and 
war seemed imminent. Our government agreed at last to 
pay a money compensation to the families of some of the 
victims, and Italy accepted the situation. 

Samoa. — Germany claimed special control over the 
Samoan Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The claim was disputed 
by the United States, and matters looked serious for a while. 
The question was settled by a treaty signed at Berlin, provid- 
ing that England, Germany, and the United States should 
guarantee the independence of these islands. 

Chili. — Our country was brought to the verge of a war 
with Chili in 1891. The trouble resulted from the murder 
of some sailors belonging to the warship Baltimore, who had 
gone ashore at Valparaiso. They were attacked in the streets 
by a mob, and two of them were killed. Chili finally dis- 
avowed the deed, and agreed to pay damages to the United 
States. 

677. New War-ships. — One important result of these in- 
cidents was that attention was directed to the weakness of our 



452 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



navy in comparison with the navies of the other great nations. 
Steps were at once taken to remedy the weakness. Liberal 




The Flag-ship Chicago. 

appropriations were made, and contracts were let for the con- 
struction of a number of first-class war-ships. 

678. Minor Events. — Oklahoma, a district in the heart of 
the Indian Territory, covering nearly 40,000 square miles, 
was opened to settlement in 1889. 10,000 new homesteads 



RECENT EVENTS. 453 

were offered, and the struggle to get them was highly exciting. 
Such was the rush of people to the new territory that the pop- 
ulation in 1890 was over 60,000, and in 1894 it was 250,000. 

Johtistowfi is a busy manufacturing city situated on the 
Conemaugh river, in central Pennsylvania. On May 13, 1889, 
the people of this little city were terrified by the awful sight 
of a column of water forty feet deep and half a mile wide 
rolling madly down the valley to where the town lay. A dam 
had broken on the heights above, and the flood rushed down 
so swiftly that an express train could not escape it. More 
than 5,000 people perished, and $10,000,000 worth of property 
was destroyed. 

679. New States. — Four new states were admitted in 
1889, the law providing for their admission having been 
passed in 1888. These were North Dakota, South Dakota, 
Montana, and Washington. Idaho and Wyoming were ad- 
mitted in 1890. The number of stars in the American flag 
was raised from 38 to 44 in President Harrison's administra- 
tion. 

680. Hawaii. — Early in 1893 a revolution occurred in 
Hawaii. The queen had proclaimed a constitution which was 
adverse to the interests of the large number of foreign residents 
of the island. A mass meeting was held, the queen and her 
constitution were denounced, and the protection of the United 
States was invoked. A body of soldiers from an American 
war-ship was landed, the queen was deposed, and a provisional 
government was organized. Commissioners were sent on to 
Washington to negotiate a treaty of annexation with the United 
States. President Harrison entered into a treaty and sent it 
to the Senate for confirmation shortly before the expiration of 
his term. The treaty was withdrawn by President Cleveland 
two days after his inauguration and nothing further has been 
done toward annexation. 



454 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

68 1. The Eleventh Census was taken in 1890 and showed 
a population of 62,622,250, a gain of about 25 per cent in ten 
years. The census showed that the South had made wonder- 
ful progress during the decade. The center of population was 
found to have moved forty-eight miles westward ; it is located 
in Indiana, twenty miles east of Columbus. 

682. Election of 1892. — The Republicans renominated 
President Harrison, and put Whitelaw Reid of New York on 
the ticket for vice-president. Grover Cleveland was again 
nominated by the Democrats with Adlai E. Stevenson of 
Illinois as the candidate for vice-president. The only im- 
portant difference in the platforms of the Democrats and 
Republicans was the tariff plank. The Democrats demanded 
" a tariff for revenue only " while the Republicans upheld the 
McKinley Bill and advocated " protection for protection's 
sake." 

The People's Party or " Populists " ^ nominated for president 
James B. Weaver of Iowa, who had been the candidate of the 
Greenbackers in 1880, and General James G. Field of Virginia 
for vice-president. The Prohibitionists nominated John Bid- 
well of California for president, and Rev. J. B. Cranfill of 
Texas for vice-president. 

The election resulted in an overwhelming Democratic vic- 
tory. Cleveland received 277 electoral votes, — Harrison 
received 145 votes and Weaver 22 votes. 

683. Summary. — The Pan-American Congress of representatives of 
the governments of North, Central, and South America met in Washington 
for the purpose of cultivating closer intercourse between the nations of 

1 The Populist party has grown up within the past few years. The principal 
features of its programme or platform are as follows: Protection of labor against 
capital, free coinage of silver at the ratio of i6 to i, loaning of money by the govern- 
ment to its citizens at a nominal rate of interest, an increased currency, government 
ownership of railroads and telegraphs and opposition to ownership of land by aliens. 
The party has grown out of the Farmers' AUiance. 



RECENT EVENTS. 455 

America. A high-tariff bill known as the McKinley Bill was passed : also 
the Sherman Act, providing for the monthly purchase of silver by the 
government. Members of the Italian Mafia in New Orleans, accused of 
murder, were lynched by the citizens, resulting in a diplomatic controversy 
with Italy. It was agreed by treaty that England, Germany, and the 
United States should have joint control of the Samoan Islands. Threatened 
war with Chili was averted. The territory of Oklahoma was opened to 
settlement. North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington were 
admitted as states. Steps were taken by the authorities of the Hawaiian 
Islands to secure annexation to the United States. In the presidential 
election Cleveland was renominated by the Democrats and was elected. 

684. Thought Questions. — Which of our presidents were related as 
father and son ? As grandfather and grandson ? In what presidential 
elections has the result turned upon the views of the candidates on certain 
political questions ? In what elections has personal popularity decided the 
result ? What is meant by " the free coinage of silver " ? 



Cleveland's Second Administration. 

1893-1897. 

685. The Silver Question Again. — Inasmuch as the issue 
in the campaign of 1892 between the Democrats and the 
Republicans had been the reform of the tariff, it was gener- 
ally expected that the reduction of the duties on imports would 
be the first matter to receive attention from the new adminis- 
tration. The Democrats, for the first time since Buchanan's 
administration, held both houses of Congress as well as the 
presidency and therefore could pass any law on which they 
agreed. But a very serious financial crisis had begun early in 
1893, ^"d President Cleveland, deeming that the disorders 
were due to the silver purchasing clause of the Sherman Act 
(§ 675), convened Congress in extra session to repeal this pro- 
vision. After a long wrangle Congress repealed the section, 
and adjourned. This action, however, did not arrest the panic. 



45 6 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

686. The Revision of the Tariff was undertaken at the 
regular session of Congress in December. The Wilson Bill, 
named from Mr. Wilson of West Virginia, by whom it was in- 
troduced, provided for a sweeping reduction of duties, espe- 
cially on raw materials to be used in manufactures, and was 
passed by the House of Representatives. The Senate refused 
to accept the bill and so changed it by amendments as to make 
it practically another bill. The House refused for some time to 
concur in the amendments, but was finally forced to do so or 
have no bill at all. This division of the Democrats among 
themselves weakened the hold of the party on public con- 
fidence. 

687. A New State. — An act was passed by Congress 
for the admission of Utah as the forty-fifth state. 

688. Behring Sea Arbitration. — England and the United 
States had been quarreling for several years over the seal- 
fisheries in Behring Sea. Secretary of State Blaine, while 
Harrison was president, had claimed that the United States 
had acquired jurisdiction over the whole of the sea when 
Alaska was purchased, and sealing vessels belonging to Cana- 
dians had been seized. England had protested on the ground 
that the jurisdiction of the United States extended only three 
miles from the shore. The matter was finally referred to a 
court of arbitration which met in Paris in 1893. The claim of 
the United States to the sea was not sustained ; but the cause 
of the claim, the prevention of wholesale destruction of the 
seals, was won. 

689. The Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893 
proved to be the grandest World's Fair ever seen. It was a 
fitting commemoration by the foremost nation in America of 
the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by 
Columbus. " The White City," as the buildings containing the 



RECENT EVENTS. 



457 



collections were called, was a marvel of beauty and magnifi- 
cence. 

690. Chicago Strike. — In the summer of 1894 a great 
strike occurred in Chicago. Beginning with the employees of 
the Pullman Car Company, it spread to the employees of the 
railroads running into Chicago, and to other labor organiza- 
tions. Riots ensued, and property estimated to be worth 
^87,000,000 was destroyed. The president sent United States 




Court of Honor, Columbian Exposition 



troops to protect United States property in Chicago. The 
president's action in sending troops into Illinois without request 
•from the state authorities was denounced by the governor of 
Illinois, and has been severely censured. (See Const. Art. 4, § 4.) 

691. Atlanta Exposition. — The citizens of Atlanta gave 
an exposition which in the beauty of its buildings and grounds 
and the extent of its exhibits was second only to the World's 
Fair at Chicago. On September 18, 1895, Marion Cleveland, the 
president's daughter, pressed an electric button in Gray Gables, 
Massachusetts, the gates at the exposition grounds at Atlanta 
swung open, and the great fair began. The Atlanta Exposition 
showed that the states, especially the South, had made marvel- 
lous progress. 



458 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



692. Era of Good Feeling. — The restoration of good feel- 
ing between the North and the South has progressed rapidly 
within recent years. A Confederate monument was dedicated 
in Chicago on Memorial Day, 1895. Expressions of good will 
from the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization com- 
posed of ex-Federal soldiers, have been met by similar expres- 
sions from the United Confederate Veterans, an organization 
composed of ex-Confederate soldiers. The dedication of the 




Atlanta Exposition. 

National Military Park of Chickamauga and Chattanooga was 
marked by the fraternal mingling of ex-Confederate and Federal 
officers and soldiers. 

693. The Force Bill Repealed ; Last Confederate Dis- 
abilities. — A step in the restoration of good feeling was the 
repeal of the Force Bill by Congress. This bill, which became 
a law in the dark days of Reconstruction, authorized the Fed- 
eral authorities to interfere with state elections and to employ 
military force at the polls. It exasperated the people of the 
South, and its repeal was welcomed as an evidence of good 
will. Some time later the law was repealed which forbade ex- 
Confederates who had been officers in the United States Army 



RECENT EVENTS. 459 

before the war from again holding office in the regular army. 
Thus the last trace of Reconstruction legislation vanished. 

694. Venezuela Controversy. — President Cleveland star- 
tled the country by a message urging that the Monroe Doctrine 
(§ 420) should be applied to an old dispute between Great 
Britain and Venezuela over the boundary line between Vene- 
zuela and British Guiana. Congress empowered the president 
to appoint commissioners to determine the boundary. Before 
the commissioners had completed their investigations Great 
Britain agreed to arbitration. 

695. Presidential Election. — The Republicans nominated 
William McKinley of Ohio for president, and Garrett A. 
Hobart of New Jersey for vice-president. Their platform 
opposed the free coinage of silver and endorsed the protect- 
ive tariff. On the refusal of the nominating convention to 
endorse the free and unlimited coinage of silver, Senator 
Teller of Colorado and twenty other delegates withdrew from 
the convention and the party. The Democrats nominated 
William J. Bryan of Nebraska for president and Arthur Sewall 
of Maine for vice-president. Their platform demanded the 
free and unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to i, and 
a revenue tariff equitably adjusted. A number of Democrats 
who were opposed to the free coinage of silver held a conven- 
tion, and nominated John M. Palmer of Illinois for president 
and Simon B. Buckner of Kentucky for vice-president. They 
took the name of the National Democratic party. The Popu- 
list party (§ 682, note) nominated William J. Bryan for president, 
and Thomas E. Watson of Georgia for vice-president. They 
adopted the free-silver plank of the Democratic platform, and 
favored government ownership of railroads and telegraphs. The 
Prohibitionists nominated Joshua Lovering of Massachusetts 
for president. McKinley and Hobart were elected, receiving 
271 electoral votes to Bryan's 176. The popular vote for 



460 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

McKinley was 7,105,959, to 6,454,943 for Bryan. The vote 
for Palmer was 133,800, many of the anti-silver Democrats 
voting for McKinley. The Prohibition vote was 130,683. 

696. Summary. — At the beginning of this administration, for the first 
time in thirty-three years, the Democratic party controlled both houses of 
Congress as well as the presidency. The silver purchasing clause of the 
Sherman Act was repealed. The Wilson bill, lowering the tariff, was 
passed. A quarrel with England over the Behring Sea fisheries was settled 
by arbitration. The Columbian Exposition in Chicago, commemorating 
the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America, proved to be the grand- 
est World's Fair ever held. The Atlanta exposition in 1895 showed 
wonderful progress of the South. A strike of labor organizations in 
Chicago occasioned great loss of property. Expressions of mutual good 
will from Northern and Southern veterans and the repeal of Reconstruction 
legislation indicated an era of good feeling. The president urged the ap- 
plication of the Monroe Doctrine to a boundary dispute between Great 
Britain and Venezuela. In the presidential election the Republican candi- 
dates, McKinley and Hobart, were successful. 

697. Thought Questions. — What different views are held to-day on the 
tariff ? the immigration question ? the silver question ? suffrage question ? 
temperance question ? What benefits result from expositions.? Was the 
president right or wrong in sending troops to Chicago ? Reasons for 
your answer. How may the Monroe Doctrine apply to the Venezuela 
controversy ? 

McKinley's Administration. 
1897-1901. 

698. Life and Services of the New President. — William 
McKinley was born in Ohio in 1843. He left college to enlist 
as a private in the Union army. Here his gallantry won his 
promotion to the rank of major. After the war he returned 
to Ohio, studied law, and opened an office at Canton. Elected 
to Congress in 1876, he served six terms and part of a seventh. 
As chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means, he pre- 
pared and pressed to adoption the tariff bill, passed in 1890 
(§ 675), and thus attained great prominence. He was serving 



RECENT EVENTS. 



461 




his second term as governor 
of Ohio when he was nomi- 
nated for the presidency. 

699. Congressional Leg- 
islation. — As the financial 
question had been the lead- 
ing issue in the campaign, 
it was expected that finan- 
cial legislation would first 
receive the attention of 
Congress (§ 684). The 
Republican majority, how- 
ever, determined to take 
up the tariff again. The 
Dingley Bill ^ was passed by 
both houses and approved 
by the president. Con- 
gress also provided for the Bimetallic Commission to visit the 
leading European nations and arrange, if possible, for the free 
coinage of silver by international agreement. This commis- 
sion, called the Wolcott Commission, from its chairman. Sen- 
ator Wolcott of Colorado, spent several months in Paris and 
London, but returned without having accomplished its mission. 

700. The Trans-Mississippi Exposition. — This exposition, 
designed to show the resources of the states west of the Mis- 
sissippi, was opened on June i, 1898, at Omaha, Nebraska. 
Among its notable features were (i) the Indian exhibit, in 
which representatives from each of the existing tribes exempli- 
fied the manner of life of the aboriginal Americans, emphasizing 
by contrast the progress of Anglo-American civilization ; (2) the 
mines and mining exhibit with its amazing display of minerals 



William McKinley. 



1 So called from its author, the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, 
Representative Dingley of Maine, 



462 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

and mining processes ; (3) the food exhibit with its wealth of 
grains, meats, fruits and vegetables ; — all revealing the marvel- 
lous development of a section which fifty years ago was consid- 
ered a desert and was crossed by warpaths of savage Indians. 



THE SPANISH WAR. 

(1898-99.) 
The Causes of the War. 

701. Spanish Misgovernment of Cuba. — Of all the coun- 
tries of the old world Spain was the most enterprising in acquir- 
ing possessions in the new world. There was a time when she 
claimed all of the western hemisphere except Brazil (§ 51). 
But her rule of her colonies was rapacious and tyrannical. 
One by one her possessions threw off her yoke, until she had 
nothing left in North America but Cuba and Porto Rico. 
Cuba has an equable, tropical climate and an exceedingly 
fertile soil. Its natural conditions peculiarly favor the pro- 
duction of two highly profitable crops, tobacco and sugar. 
Under a liberal government it would have remained a happy 
and prosperous dependency. But Spain governed it harshly 
by an army sent from home, and such heavy taxes were laid 
upon it that even under its favorable conditions the people 
had little left after paying the revenues demanded by the gov- 
ernment across the sea. No matter how well they toiled, or 
how richly their industry was rewarded, the Cubans became 
poorer each year under the exactions of Spain. The people 
grew discontented and eventually rebellious. In the interior of 
the island oppression was met with armed resistance. Patriots 
made efforts to unify the people in a general uprising, and 
to interest the republics of the earth in their wrongs and in 
their struggle for freedom. Lying within a few miles of the 
United States, the greatest republic in the world, the Cubans 



RECENT EVENTS. 463 

naturally expected our sympathy and aid. And our relations 
to Cuba have been for years a subject of serious consideration 
by the government. But officially we have always maintained 
absolute neutrality. The fact that the United States scrupu- 
lously refrained from taking any part in the Cuban struggle 
discouraged the intervention of weaker republics, and discour- 
aged the Cubans themselves and prolonged the rule of Sp^in. 

702. Revolution of 1895. — In 1895 the Cubans again 
revolted. This movement was more general, better organ- 
ized and better managed than any that had preceded it. 
Fighting began in the eastern provinces, but soon spread 
over the island and reached the vicinity of Havana itself. 
The insurgents, under Gomez, Garcia, Maceo and others, 
avoided pitched battles, but attacked detached forces and 
remote forts. Spain increased her army by troops from home, 
until she had more than a hundred thousand soldiers on the 
island. General Campos, who had previously served Spain 
in the same capacity, was sent over to put down the rebellion. 
In this case he failed, and after a few months he resigned and 
returned to Spain. General Weyler succeeded him and took 
charge of the Spanish forces early in 1896. His method was 
cruel and tyrannical in the extreme. He ordered that the peo- 
ple be taken from their homes and farms and collected in the 
towns and at the forts, where they could be under immediate 
military control. The people so collected were mostly women 
and children.^ Crowded together, without proper food or shelter, 
great numbers of them died of starvation or disease. The insur- 
gents had destroyed the sugar mills, so that they could not pro- 
duce revenue for Spain, Farms were abandoned. Now the 
fertile soil of this " Pearl of the Antilles " returned to the vol- 
untary production of wild and useless vegetation, and the sea 

1 They were called " reconcentrados." 



464 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



breeze that blew over it carried the breath of the pestilence 
from one camp of " reconcentrados " to another. 



703. Sympathy in the United States — While their coun- 
try was being devastated and their families were starving, the 
Cuban patriots made every appeal they could to the United 
States. And in the main the people of our country sympa- 
thized with them and were anxious to aid them. Filibustering 
expeditions, in spite of the precautions taken by our govern- 
ment, carried them arms and supplies. Many powerful news- 
papers favored them and urged our government to interfere in 
their behalf. The matter came up in various ways in Congress ; 
but the executive insisted that neutrality was our only safe 
policy. President Cleveland, though he adhered strictly to this 
policy of neutrality, said in a message 
to Congress that when Spain's inability 
to deal with the insurrection became 
manifest our duty to Spain would be 
superseded by our duty to the strug- 
gling Cubans. President McKinley was 
anxious that Spain should " pacify " 
Cuba and that the United States 
should be kept free from foreign en- 
tanglements. But a series of events 
occurred within the space of a few 
months which so aroused the people 
that the government was forced to in- 
tervene. General Fitzhugh Lee was 
appointed Consul-General to Cuba by President Cleveland and 
was retained by President McKinley. He pursued a vigorous 
policy in looking after the interests of his country. He reported 
that between six and eight hundred American citizens were 
among the destitute and starving. President McKinley sent a 
message to Congress (May 11, 1897) asking for an appropriation 




Fitzhugh Lee. 



RECENT EVENTS. 465 

of $50,000 to relieve these suffering Americans. The money 
was granted, and during the passage of the bill an attempt 
was made in the House to recognize the insurgents as bellig- 
erents. On May 20 the Senate passed a resolution recognizing 
the insurgents. 

704. Spain Promises a Liberal Policy. — In August, Sagasta 
became prime minister of Spain. He had previously opposed 
the Spanish method of dealing with the Cubans, and it was 
known that he would adopt a more liberal policy. To the 
United States minister who was charged to make a strong 
protest against the conditions in Cuba he declared that General 
Weyler would be recalled, the " reconcentrados " edict revoked, 
and autonomy offered to Cuba. General Weyler was succeeded 
by General Blanco, who was more humane. The " reconcen- 
trados " were little benefited, for their homes were burned, their 
crops destroyed, and they were without means. The autonomy 
offered carried many extreme conditions, of which one was that 
Cuba should pay the whole Spanish war debt incurred in "paci- 
fying " the island. The administration at Washington insisted 
that Spain should have time to try this new policy. But the 
war party of the Cubans would have nothing to do with the 
plan, and they declared that they had an elective government 
of their own entirely independent of any authority from Spain. 

705. Destruction of the Maine. — In January, 1898, the 
Cuban captain-general put a guard around the American consu- 
late. This precaution was taken because Spanish feeling against 
Americans was very strong. In the same month the President 
sent the battle-ship Maine to Havana. It was announced to the 
Spanish authorities that the Maine's visit to Havana was a purely 
friendly one. As soon as the ship was anchored in the harbor, 
Captain Sigsbee hastened to show his friendly mission by 
extending and accepting all the hospitalities usual to a ship 



466 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

visiting a peaceful foreign port. About ten o'clock on the 
night of February 15 a terrible explosion took place under 
the forward part of the vessel. Captain Sigsbee hurried to 
the deck. On the way up he ran against William Anthony, a 
private sailor, orderly at the cabin door, who in calm devotion 
to duty was coming to notify the captain of the explosion and 
did notify him. In a few minutes all the boats had been low- 
ered, and the living seamen had left the sinking wreck. Two 
hundred and sixty sailors, including two officers, were killed by 
the explosion. The Maine was completely wrecked. There 
was great excitement in the United States when Captain 
Sigsbee's telegram reached Washington. The belief that the 
Mai?ie had been destroyed by a submarine mine, exploded by 
some dastardly enemy of the Americans, was universal. It was 
felt on all sides that war could no longer be averted. The 
President appointed a commission to inquire into the cause of 
the disaster. 

706. Declaration of War. — On March 8-9 Congress passed 
by a practically unanimous vote a bill appropriating $50,000,000 
to be expended by the President in the national defense. On 
March 16 Senator Proctor, of Vermont, just returned from an 
investigation in Cuba, thrilled the country with a detailed 
account of the horrible conditions of starvation and disease 
he found. On March 28 the President submitted the report 
of the Maine Court of Inquiry. It found that the Maine was 
blown up by a submarine mine. On March 30 the President 
asked permission of Spain to relieve the Cuban "reconcen- 
trados." This permission was given and steps were taken at 
once. On April 5 all the Cuban consuls were recalled. Gen- 
eral Lee, with several Americans, left Havana on April 9. On 
April II the President sent a message to Congress. He 
reviewed the whole Cuban question. He asked Congress to 
empower the President to take measures to terminate hostilities 



RECENT EVENTS. 46/ 

between Spain and Cuba. He asked to be authorized to use 
the land and naval forces of the United States in reaching this 
end. He declared that the issue was now with Congress. 
April 19 Congress passed a resolution declaring: (i) that the 
people of Cuba are free and independent ; (2) that the United 
States demand that Spain relinquish authority over Cuba and 
withdraw its land and naval forces from Cuba; (3) that the 
President is empowered to use the land and naval forces and 
the militia in carrying this resolution into effect ; (4) that the 
United States declares its intention of leaving Cuba, when paci- 
fied, to the government and control of its own people. On 
April 25 Congress passed a formal declaration of war against 
Spain, but dated the beginning of the war on April 21. 

THE MILITARY MOVEMENTS. 

707. The Call to Arms. — For thirty-three years, the life of 
a generation, the United States had been at peace. In perfect 
security we had been absorbed in the development of our ter- 
ritory, our industries, and our institutions. We did not fear 
aggression and we did not aspire to conquest. The regular 
army numbered about 18,000 men. When compared with many 
European countries our naval force was very small. We had 
four first-class battle-ships, Oregon., Massachusetts., Iowa, Indi- 
ana, one second-class battle-ship, Texas, two armored cruisers, 
Brooklyn and A''ew York, fourteen protected cruisers, four 
monitors, twelve torpedo boats, a number of gunboats, and 
two new untried American inventions, the dynamite cruiser 
Vesuvius and the ram Katahdin. The President issued a call 
for 125,000 volunteers to be raised in just proportion among 
the several states. Within ten days, more than 700,000 men 
offered their services. The difficulty was not to fill the number, 
but to make selections from the flood of applicants. A later 
call for 75,000 volunteers was promptly made up. Many old 



468 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

Confederate soldiers were appointed to positions of rank in the 
volunteer army ; General Fitzhugh Lee, of Virginia, General 
M. C. Butler, of South Carolina, and General Joseph Wheeler, 
of Alabama, a gallant Confederate cavalry leader, were made 
major-generals ; William Jennings Bryan, Democratic candi- 
date for president in 1896, became colonel of a Nebraska 
regiment. A picturesque and highly efficient regiment was 
one recruited at San Antonio, Texas, by Colonel Leonard 
Wood and Lieutenant-Colonel Theodore Roosevelt. This 
regiment contained western cowboys, miners, and frontiers- 
men, and New York club men and college athletes. The 
public named this regiment the " Rough Riders " and 
watched its fortunes with great interest. This great army, 
so speedily raised and so eager for service, contained Union 
and Confederate soldiers, adventurers and millionaires, mer- 
chants and mechanics, men from New England and men from 
Dixie. The pulse of the whole American people had been 
stirred and there was now but one party, and it was willing to 
risk all in a war to liberate and rescue the oppressed and 
suffering people at our door. 

The navy was rapidly increased. From friendly foreign pow- 
ers we purchased three new warships. From American mer- 
chant lines we bought eight steamships and converted them 
into warships. Private yachts were given or sold to the gov- 
ernment. Extensive manufactories were put at work making 
powder and ammunition. 

This varied and tremendous equipment, so speedily prepared, 
disclosed to the world the vast resources of the United States 
and caused the nations of the earth to make room for a new 
first-class world power. 

708. The Battle of Manila. — On April 26, the day after 
the formal declaration of war, Commodore George W. Dewey, 
in command of a squadron lying at Hong Kong, received orders 



RECENT EVENTS. 



469 



from the President to " seek the Spanish fleet and capture or 
destroy it." This squadron consisted of four protected cruisers, 
Olympia, Baltimore, Raleigh, and Boston, two gunboats, Coticord 
and Petrel, and the dispatch boat McCulloch. The Commodore 
stripped his ships for action and sailed for Manila, distant 
about six hundred miles. On the morning of the 30th the 
squadron appeared on the western coast of Luzon, the chief 
island of the archipelago. Search was made in the open bays 
for the Spanish fleet, but it was not found. In the afternoon 
Commodore Dewey called the captains of the ships to his own 
ship, the Olympia, and told them it was his intention to force the 
entrance to the harbor of Manila during the night. This was 
the proposition of a very daring enterprise. The entrance to 
Manila Bay is divided into two channels or " mouths " by two 
high rocky islands which lie about midway between the shores. 
Corregidor, the larger of the islands, was provided with a bat- 
tery. The larger mouth of the entrance contained some isolated 
rocks pushing up out of the 
water, and one of these, Fra- 
ile, was fortified. The main- 
land on both sides of the 
entrance was heavily fortified 
with the best guns ; and the 
fleet had to run the gantlet 
with a pilot who had never 
been over the roadstead be- 
fore. But about midnight, 
in single column, with all 
lights out except one in the 
rear of each ship, to guide 
the one next in line, the fleet 
steamed into the channel. 
When half the column had 
passed Corregidor, sparks from the funnel of the McCulloch 




George Dewey. 



4/0 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

revealed the movement to the enemy. Signal rockets were 
sent up at once. The batteries began firing, but the fleet 
passed all the defenses without being struck by a single 
shot. When day dawned, the Spanish fleet was discovered 
lying close under the guns of Cavite'.^ Our ships steamed 
in. at once to engage the enemy. As they passed, immediately 
in front of the Olympia a huge column of water shot into the 
air, thrown up by a mine that had been exploded prematurely. 
Another mine was exploded later, but no harm was done. 
Then the battle began. The fleet in column steamed past the 
Spanish ships and fort and poured broadsides into them. The 
Spanish guns replied with great energy ; the air was filled with 
shot and shell. Again and again the American fleet passed 
in front of Cavite, each time going closer in. About seven 
o'clock the flagship Reiiia Cristma left its moorings and headed 
directly toward the Olympia. The firing was concentrated on 
her and she was obliged to turn back. As she swung round, a 
shell from the Olympia struck her and went her whole length, 
doing such damage that she had to be abandoned. The Span- 
ish Admiral took his colors and bravely got in an open boat 
and was rowed to another ship. About eight o'clock the 
American ships withdrew out of range. The Commodore had 
been incorrectly informed that one class of ammunition was 
about exhausted. When all of the ships were assembled, it 
was found that not a man had been killed, nor had a single 
ship been seriously damaged. There was plenty of ammunition. 
Breakfast was served to the crews, and about eleven o'clock the 
fleet returned to battle.^ This time our vessels went farther 
in. Not a Spanish ship escaped. But the result of the battle 
is best told in Dewey's own words. The evening of the day he 

1 Cavite is a suburb of Manila. It was strongly fortified and contained the 
arsenal. 

2 In the meantime the Spaniards had cabled to Spain claiming a great victory, 
saying the Americans had withdrawn to bury their dead. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



471 



entered Manila Bay (May i) he telegraphed to Washington 
as follows: 

Squadron arrived at Manila at daybreak this morning. Immedi- 
ately engaged the enemy and destroyed the following vessels : Reitia 
Cristifia^ Castilla^ Don Antonio de Ulloa^ Isla de Ln20?t, Isla de 
Cuba, General Lezo, Marquis del Dtiera, pavo, Velasco, Isla de 
Alindanao, a transport and water battery at Cavite. The squadron 
is uninjured and only a few men are slightly wounded. Dewey 

After the battle the Commodore destroyed the fortifications 
at Cavite and at the entrance, and was soon in complete and 
unquestioned control of the Philippines without serious damage 
to one of his own ships, or a serious wound to one of his men. 
Commodore Dewey and his men won one of the most brilliant 
naval battles ever fought, and no victory of the kind was ever 
so complete. 

709. The Blockade of Cuba. — As soon as war was declared, 
Rear- Admiral Sampson was ordered to 
blockade Havana and other Cuban 
ports. The object was to prevent Spain 
from sending supplies and reinforce- 
ments to Cuba. Sampson's squadron, 
consisting of the Nezv York, Iowa, 
Lidiana, and four smaller vessels, soon 
appeared off Havana (April 22). 
The northern coast west of Havana 
was patrolled, and some valuable prizes 
were taken. Some minor but severe 
engagements between vessels of the 
squadron and coast fortifications and 
vessels were fought. 

News reached us that Admiral Cervera, with the Spanish 
flying squadron, had sailed from the Cape Verde Islands to 
the west. What could be the purpose and destination of this 




William T. Sampson. 



472 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



fleet, the pride of the Spanish Navy ? Would it try to succor 
Havana ? Would it attack our own fleet ? Would it bombard 
our coast ? Commodore Schley, with our flying squadron, was 
stationed at Hampton Roads, on the alert to protect our coast 
or to intercept the Spanish fleet when it should reach our side 
of the world. It seemed reasonable that Porto Rico would be 
the first resting place of the Spanish 
fleet. Admiral Sampson sailed over 
there, explored the harbors and bom- 
barded San Juan. While Admiral 
Sampson was at Porto Rico, informa- 
tion came of the Spanish fleet at Mar- 
tinique, and later at an island off the 
north coast of Venezuela. Immediately 
Commodore Schley was sent to inter- 
cept it or to find its refuge. His flying 
squadron consisted of the Brooklyn^ 
Massachusetts^ Texas ^ Mbmeapolis, New 
OrIea?is, and the gunboat Scorpion. He 
sailed around the western point of 
Cuba and skirted the southern coast. No trace of the Spanish 
fleet could be found. On May 26 he appeared off the harbor 
of Santiago. Four days later he cabled to Washington : " I 
have seen the enemy's ships in the harbor with my own eyes." 
Two days later Admiral Sampson, with his squadron, to which 
the Oregon ^ had been added, appeared and took command of 

1 The Oregon, in joining the eastern squadron, had performed a wonderful feat. 
She was lying at Puget Sound when she was ordered to sail for the east coast. 
She started March 19. She arrived off the east coast of South America about the 
time that Cervera's fleet reached the same waters. Great anxiety was felt at Wash- 
ington for her, and she was warned by cable. But she steamed straight on her 
course and arrived safe off the coast of Florida. In two months' time she had made 
a voyage of nearly 14,000 miles, had met the severest tests of rough weather and con- 
tinuous service without the slightest accident or injury to her machinery or equip- 
ment, and when she came into port was as fit for sea as when she started. She holds 
the world's sailing record for vessels of her class. 




Winfield S. Schley. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



473 



the combined fleets. Vessels were set to guard the narrow 
channel that led to the Santiago harbor, and watch was kept 
night and day to prevent the escape of the Spaniards. 

In order to make escape from the harbor more difficult, Rear- 
Admiral Sampson wished some obstruction placed in the chan- 
nel, so that the Spanish ships could not get out at all, or only 
with the greatest difficulty and very slowly. The problem was 
presented to Lieutenant Hobson, of Alabama, a young engineer. 
After consideration he proposed to take- the coal vessel, the 
Merrimac^ into the entrance during the night, turn her across 
the channel, and sink her. The plan 
was approved, but the channel was 
heavily guarded with Spanish guns, 
and it did not seem possible that any 
who went on such an enterprise could 
come out alive. But the young lieu- 
tenant was willing to give his life for 
his country and prepared to go. Volun- 
teers who were willing to face death 
were called for to accompany him. 
Practically the whole fleet volunteered. 
Not only were men willing to go, but 
they tried to buy the privilege from those 

who were selected ; they fought for the choice, and one man 
who had been rejected hid himself on the Merrimac, and when 
she sailed to destruction he went along. The crew consisted 
of Lieutenant Hobson and seven men. The collier entered the 
channel in the darkness of night, and made her way toward 
the point selected. She was riddled with shot and shell from 
the shores. But she reached the point ; a hole was blown in 
her hull, and she was sunk, as had been planned. The crew, 
all unharmed, clung to a raft that had been previously prepared. 
They were picked up by the Spaniards, imprisoned for a while 
in Morro Castle, and afterwards exchanged. 




Richmond P. Hobson. 



474 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 




William R. Shafter. 



710. Fighting at Santiago The "bottling up " of Cer- 

vera in Santiago harbor determined the course of the war. It 
was at once decided to lay siege to San- 
tiago. General Shafter, in command of 
15,000 troops, landed on the coast near 
Santiago (June 22). The first battle by 
these troops was fought two days later 
by the vanguard, under General Young. 
The enemy were discovered in a strong 
position at Las Guasimas. Colonel 
Wood, with a battalion of the Rough 
Riders, supported by small detach- 
ments from the first and tenth cavalry, 
was ordered to drive them out. The 
engagement that followed was deadly in its results, and was met 
by our troops with unflinching heroism. 
The enemy outnumbered our troops two 
or three to one. They hid in dense jun- 
gles and fired from concealment with 
smokeless powder that left no trace of 
their location. Though their men fell 
rapidly, the Rough Riders never fal- 
tered. They charged into the woods in 
the face of the concealed fire, routed the 
Spaniards from their hiding places, and 
sent them flying back on Santiago.^ 

A few days later (July i) a general 
attack was made along the whole line of the intrenchments 
guarding Santiago. The chief points of attack were El Caney, 

1 This battle produced a great effect at home. A number of well-known men 
were killed here where our army first set foot on Cuban soil. Every man from Colonel 
Wood and Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt, down through the ranks and including 
R. H. Davis and Edward Marshall, non-combatant newspaper correspondents, showed 
dauntless courage. The Rough Riders became popular heroes, and Las Guasimas a 
symbol of American courage and skill. 




Joseph H. Wheeler. 



RECENT EVENTS. 475 

on the extreme right, and San Juan, about the middle of 
the line. General Lawton had command of the attack on 
El Caney. He expected to take the position in a few hours 
and join the main division for the attack on the center. 
But he met a stubborn and deadly resistance. The fighting 
continued all day, and cost the lives of many brave men. 
But at last the Spaniards were driven out and th^ Ameri- 
cans occupied El Caney. The middle division, facing San 
Juan, was under the command of General Wheeler.^ General 
Kent's division was on the left. The attempt to take the hills 
here was met with a withering fire from the intrenchments, 
from the trees along the trails and roads, from every kind of 
protection and ambuscade. The sixth infantry in fighting its 
way up the hill lost 119 men, killed or 
wounded; but every man not stopped 
by a bullet went to the top. The six- 
teenth lost loi men. 

The Rough Riders, now under com- 
mand of Colonel Roosevelt,^ were again 
in the hottest of the charge and again 
acquitted themselves gallantly. But it 
is impossible to specify gallant deeds, 
there is such a long list of them. The 
battle was fought against great odds of * i^Th^ 

position and condition. The American Theodore Roosevelt. 

officers and men showed remarkable courage and skill. The 
Spaniards held to their positions doggedly, even desperately, 
but they were unable to withstand the rushing assaults of our 
troops. When night came the Americans were in possession 
of the hills overlooking Santiago. 

1 General Wheeler had been sick for several days prior to the battle, but he was 
in ceaseless activity at the front during the fight, and showed in picturesque way the 
same courage and dash that gained him in the sixties the sobriquet of " Fighting " 
Joe Wheeler. 

2 Colonel Wood had been put in command of a brigade of Wheeler's division. 




476 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

711. The Destruction of Cervera^s Fleet. — The next Sun- 
day (July 3) Cervera's fleet made an attempt to escape. Early 
in the morning our lookouts descried the Spanish flagship 
Maria Teresa emerging from the channel into the open sea. 
She was followed at some little distance by the Vizcaya, the 
Cristobal Colon, the Almirante Oqiiendo, and in the rear the 
torpedo destroyers Pluton and Furor. Our vessels, that for 
more than a month had been lying in wait for this very oppor- 
tunity, instantly engaged them.^ In less than an hour all the 
Spanish ships except the Colon were wrecks and in flames. 
In three hours the Colon, rated as one of the fastest cruisers in 
the world, was run down and captured. About 1300 prisoners 
were taken, including Admiral Cervera. Not an American 
vessel was seriously damaged. One American seaman was 
killed and two wounded. This was the most rapid and 
destructive naval battle of modern times, and the American 
victory was a fit companion to that of Manila. 

712. The Surrender of Santiago. — Following the advance 
our troops had made upon Santiago and the crushing defeat of 
Cervera's fleet. General Shafter demanded the surrender of San- 
tiago. Negotiations were slow, but eventually (July 15) terms 
were agreed upon and signed. The Spanish troops were trans- 
ported to Spain by the United States and our troops marched 
in and took possession of Santiago. 

713. Annexation of Hawaii. — The revolutionary party in 
Hawaii, having established a republican government, renewed 
the negotiations for annexation (§ 679). A new annexation 
treaty was sent to the Senate by President McKinley for rati- 
fication. Before action on this treaty was taken, however, 

1 Sampson had steamed away eastward on his flagship to confer with General 
Shafter, leaving Schley in command of the fleet. The engagement has been called a 
" captains' fight," as each ship commander acted independently in accordance with 
a prearranged plan of action. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



477 



annexation was consummated by joint resolution of both 
houses of Congress (July, 1898).^ 

714. Peace. — The surrender of Santiago virtually closed 
the war. With her fleets destroyed and one of her armies 
surrendered ; with a large part of Cuba wrested from her and 
the whole island within the grasp of our victorious troops ; 
with an American army, under General Miles, commander 



.iiiiMfWMMPi, 



of the Army of the United 
States, landed in Porto Rico 
and another in the Philippines, 
where Manila already lay at the 
mercy of Admiral Dewey's 
guns ; with her national fi- 
nances on the verge of bank- 
ruptcy and a domestic revolution 
threatened, — nothing was left 'l 
to Spain but to admit defeat. 
Through the French minister 
at Washington she applied for 
terms of peace. On August 1 2 
a protocol, or preliminary treaty, 
was signed by our secretary of 
state, in behalf of the United 
States, and the French minister, representing Spain. Orders 

1 The Hawaiian Islands are situated in the Pacific, 2100 miles southwest from 
San Francisco. They have a total area about equal to that of New Jersey, and they 
include eight inhabited islands, of which Hawaii, the largest, gives its name to the 
group. The islands were first made known to the world by Captain James Cook, an 
English navigator who visited them in 1778 and named them the Sandwich Islands 
after the Earl of Sandwich. In 1820 missionaries from the United States estabUshed 
themselves in the islands, introducing Christianity and civilization, and beginning the 
era of American predominance. In 1875 ^ reciprocity treaty with the United States 
enormously increased sugar planting and stimulated foreign immigration. The total 
population is 109,000, of whom 40,000 are natives and half-breeds, 5000 Americans and 
British, and the remainder chiefly Chinese, Japanese, and Portugese, imported as labor- 
ers on the sugar plantations. Honolulu, the capital, has a population of about 25,000. 




Nelson A. Miles. 



478 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 




were at once sent to the naval and military commanders of both 
governments to suspend hostilities. Before the news could 
reach the Philippines, however, the land forces of General 
Merritt, aided by Dewey's fleet, had stormed and taken posses- 
sion of the city of Manila (August 15). 



715. The Treaty. — Representatives of the two nations met 
at Paris, and on December 10 signed a treaty of peace. The 
leading provisions of the treaty were : 

I. Spain relinquishes all claim to Cuba; the island to be 
occupied by the United States, who, so long as such occupa- 
tion shall last, will be responsible for 
the protection of life and property. 

2. Spain cedes to the United States 
Porto Rico and other Spanish islands 
in the West Indies, and the island of 
Guam in the Ladrones (see map). 

3. Spain cedes the Philippine Is- 
lands to the United States for the sum 
of $20,000,000. 

4. The United States will for ten 
years admit Spanish ships and mer- 
chandise to Philippine ports on the 

same terms as ships and merchandise of the United States. 

When the treaty was presented to the United States Senate 
for ratification, considerable opposition was manifested to the 
provisions relating to the Philippines. The acquisition of ter- 
ritory lying in the eastern hemisphere and inhabited by alien 
and inferior races, who themselves seemed averse to annexation, 
was considered by the opponents of this feature of the treaty as a 
dangerous departure from the settled policy of our government 
in the past. News of a conflict between the native troops and 
our forces at Manila, however, hastened action on the treaty, 
and on February 6, 1899, it was ratified by a vote of 57 to 27. 




Wesley Merritt. 



RECENT EVENTS. 479 

716. Trouble with the Filipinos. — Prior to the occupation 
of Manila by our troops Aguinaldo, a Philippine chieftain and 
leader of a previous revolution against Spanish authority in the 
islands, had raised an army of natives who acted in cooperation 
with our forces. His followers framed a constitution for an 
independent government and chose Aguinaldo president of the 
Philippine Republic. The cession of the islands by Spain to 
the United States and the expressed intention of this govern- 
ment to extend its military authority over the whole of the ceded 
territory aroused the resentment of the native leaders. This 
feeling culminated in a conflict between Aguinaldo's army and 
our troops under General Otis, on February 5, 1899. The natives 
were beaten with great loss of life and were driven toward the 
interior of the island. Aguinaldo con- 
tinued to resist the occupation of the 
island by our troops until his capture in 
March, 1901, ended organized opposi- 
tion to the authority of the United States. 




717. Results of the War. —The 
war lasted less than four months. No 
previous war in our history was at- 
tended with so small loss of life to our 
troops in battle. Slightly over 400 
American soldiers and sailors were ^''^^" ^" °^'^" 

killed or died from wounds. A much greater number, how- 
ever, died from disease. In money, the actual cost of the 
war has been estimated at over $130,000,000. This does not 
include the enormous expenditures subsequent to the cessation 
of hostilities with Spain, but which directly resulted from the 
war, and which cannot yet be approximately estimated. 

In territorial changes, the results of the war were : 
(i) Cuba was wrested from Spanish misrule, and the 
United States was pledged to assist the people of the island 



480 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

to establish an independent government; (2) Porto Rico/ 
Guam,^ and the Philippines ^ were ceded to the United States 
by Spain ; (3) the annexation of Hawaii was hastened. 

Other results of the war no less important than those above 
mentioned were : (i) the eifacement of the last trace of sectional 
hatred between North and South ; (2) the revelation to our- 
selves and to the world of the prowess of our citizen soldiers 
and of the magnificence of our national resources ; (3) strength- 
ening the ties of friendship between England and the United 
States, as a result of the prompt and generous expressions of 
sympathy with our cause by representative Englishmen during 
our contest with Spain ; (4) the opening up of new problems 
in government and statecraft to our people in determining 
the form of government and future disposition of our distant 
possessions. 

718. The Boxer Uprising in China. — The Spanish War 
had not long closed when our troops were again called to 
service in a distant part of the world. In 1900 the " Boxers," 
a powerful secret society in China, began a series of anti-foreign 
uprisings. Scores of missionaries and other foreigners, includ- 
ing many American citizens, besides hundreds of native Chris- 
tians, were butchered in these Boxer riots. In the city of Peking 
the German minister was assassinated. Minister Conger of 
the United States, with the other foreign ministers and their 
attendants, were besieged in the buildings of the British lega- 
tion, and all communication with the outside world was cut off. 
The United States and other nations hurried ships of war and 

1 Porto Rico with its three small adjacent islands has an area of over 3500 square 
miles — about half the size of New Jersey. Its population is 800,000, of whom nearly 
one-half are negroes. San Juan is the capital. 

2 Guam is about 100 miles in circumference, and is valuable as a naval station. 

3 The Philippines comprise several hundred islands, with a total area of 114,000 
square miles. Luzon, the largest of the islands, is about as large as the state of 
Kentucky, and is the seat of Manila, the capital city. The total population of the 
Philippines is over 10,000,000^ composed chiefly of Malays, Negritos, and Chinese. 



RECENT EVENTS. 48 I 

troops to China. A march to the relief of Peking was begun. 
Finally, after two and a half months of siege, the foreigners in 
Peking were rescued by the arrival of a relief column of allied 
troops. China was compelled to punish the leaders of the 
Boxer movement, pay for the property destroyed, and give 
assurances of the prevention of similar outbreaks in the future. 

719. The Galveston Storm. — In September, 1900, the city 
of Galveston, Texas, was visited by one of the most terrible 
disasters in history. A hurricane swept the waters of the Gulf 
over the island on which the city is built and far upon the 
mainland of Texas. The beautiful city was left a mass of 
ruins. The loss of life on the island and the adjacent main- 
land was estimated at from 8000 to 10,000 ; property to the 
value of many millions of dollars was destroyed. At once 
there Vv^as a wonderful outpouring of sympathy and aid from 
all parts of our country and from foreign lands. Large sums 
of money were raised, whole trains and great ships were loaded 
with supplies and despatched to the stricken people. The 
survivors bravely set to work to rebuild their city. An immense 
sea wall is now in course of construction which it is believed 
will make Galveston safe from storms. 

720. Presidential Election of 1900. — The Republicans 
renominated McKinley for president, with Governor Theodore 
Roosevelt of New York for vice-president. Their platform 
favored the gold standard, a permanent protective tariff, and 
the maintenance of our sovereignty in the Philippines. The 
Democrats again nominated William J. Bryan of Nebraska for 
president, with Adlai Stevenson of Illinois for vice-president. 
The Democratic platform demanded immediate independence 
for Cuba, a declaration of our purpose to give independence to 
the Philippines, the application of the constitution to all the 
territory of the United States, free coinage of silver, and legis- 
lation against trusts. Both platforms favored the construction 



482 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

by the United States of an interoceanic canal. The Populists 
divided. One wing of the party nominated Bryan for presi- 
dent, and Charles A. Towne of Minnesota for vice-president. 
The " Middle of the Road," or anti-fusion wing, nominated 
Wharton Barker of Pennsylvania and Ignatius Donnelly of 
Minnesota. The Populist platform demands included the issue 
of all money by the government and not by banks, the free 
coinage of silver, and an income and an inheritance tax. 

The nominees of the Prohibition Party were John G. Woolley 
of Illinois and H. B. Metcalf of Rhode Island. 

In the election McKinley and Roosevelt were successful, 
receiving 292 electoral votes to 155 for Bryan and Stevenson. 

721. The Pan-American Exposition. — In 1901 an exposi- 
tion was held at Buffalo, New York, designed to exhibit the 
resources of the countries on the American continent. There 
were interesting exhibits from the various American govern- 
ments. In magnificence of electrical display and in beautiful 
artistic effects the exposition has never been surpassed. 

722. Assassination of President McKinley. — Six months 
after President McKinley had entered upon his second term, 
the world was shocked by the news that for the third time in 
forty years a president of the United States had been assas- 
sinated. While shaking hands with a long line of people in 
the beautiful Temple of Music at the Buffalo Exposition, the 
president was shot by a man to whom he was extending his 
hand in friendly greeting. The base and cowardly crime was 
the work of Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, one who declares 
that there should be no governments, but that every one should 
do as he pleases. The president Hngered a few days, and died 
on September 14, 1901. The grief throughout the United States 
was universal. Expressions of sympathy with our people came 
from every part of the civilized world. The wretched assassin 
was tried for murder, condemned to death, and executed. 



RECENT EVENTS. 483 

Roosevelt's Administration. 
1901- 

723. Life and Services of President Roosevelt. — Within a 
few hours after the death of President McKinley, Vice-Presi- 
dent Roosevelt took the oath of office as President of the 
United States. Theodore Roosevelt's ancestors were among 
the early Dutch settlers of New York. He graduated at Har- 
vard and afterward studied law. He was in turn member of 
the New York Legislature, police commissioner of New York 
City, and assistant secretary of the navy. He helped to organ- 
ize and later became colonel of the famous " Rough Riders " 
regiment which rendered valiant service in Cuba. On his 
return from the Spanish War he was elected governor of New 
York, which office he resigned to accept the vice-presidency. 
He is the author of a number of books on subjects relating 
to hunting life in the West, and to American history and 
biography. 

724. The Hague Tribunal. — A notable event in the 
progress of civilization was the meeting of the World's Peace 
Conference, called by Czar Nicholas II. of Russia to con- 
sider measures for the prevention of wars through the peace- 
ful settlement of international disputes. The Conference, 
composed of delegates from the leading civilized nations of 
the world, met at The Hague, Holland. The United States 
gave prompt approval to the purposes of the Conference, and 
our representatives took an active part in its deliberations. 
One result of the meeting was the establishment of the Hague 
International Arbitration Tribunal — a court for the settlement 
of disputes between nations. 

725. The <' Pious Fund** Dispute. — The first case to 
come before the Hague Tribunal was a disagreement between 
the United States and Mexico over what was known as the 



484 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

" Pious Fund." While California was part of Mexico the 
Mexican government seized funds and property belonging to 
the Roman Catholic Church, guaranteeing, however, to pay 
the church authorities six per cent annually forever on the 
amount seized. Since 1869 Mexico had paid no interest, and 
in 1902 the church claims amounted to nearly two million dol- 
lars. The United States took up the matter of these claims 
of her citizens, and the result was the reference of the question 
to the Hague Tribunal. The final decision was favorable to 
the United States. 

726. The Second Pan-American Congress. — In 1902 the 
second Pan-American Congress (§674) met in the City of 
Mexico to consider questions of common interest to the gov- 
ernments of the Western Hemisphere. The congress adopted 
twenty recommendations to be submitted to the respective gov- 
ernments. Among these recommendations were plans for the 
arbitration of international disputes, an intercontinental railway, 
better facilities for commerce, and a Pan-American bank. 

727. The Great Coal Strike. — The coal supply of the 
United States comes chiefly from the coal mines of Pennsyl- 
vania and West Virginia. In 1902 the coal miners of this 
region united in a strike for better wages, different working 
hours, and a change in the manner of weighing coal. The 
strike was prolonged for months, and a coal famine began to 
prevail. With the approach of winter intense suffering to the 
public was threatened, in addition to great financial loss. At 
the request of President Roosevelt, representatives of both sides 
of the controversy met with him to confer in regard to a settle- 
ment. Finally an agreement was made to refer all matters in 
dispute to a commission appointed by the president, and the 
strike came to an end. 

728. The Republic of Cuba. — On May 20, 1902, the flag 
of the United States which for nearly four years had waved 



RECENT EVENTS. 485 

over the government buildings of Havana, Cuba, was lowered, 
and the banner of the Republic of Cuba was raised in its 
place. On this date Cuba began her career as an independent 
nation. President Palma was inaugurated, and the new gov- 
ernment went into operation. Thus the promise of the United 
States made at the beginning of the Spanish War was fulfilled, 
and we voluntarily withdrew our troops after having wrested 
the island from Spanish tyranny and aided the Cubans to 
establish a government of their own. 

729. Treaty with Cuba. — The next year (1903) a reci- 
procity treaty was made between the United States and Cuba, 
by which each nation made important reductions in the tariff 
on certain goods imported from the other. 

730. Gold in Alaska : Boundary Dispute. — The discovery 
of gold in the Klondike region of Alaska attracted a large 
number of immigrants to that section, and made the exact 
location of the eastern boundary of the narrow southern strip 
of Alaska a matter of great importance. Canada claimed that 
the " coast " from which, according to our Russian title, the 
eastern boundary was measured, meant the outer rim of islands 
skirting the coast. The United States claimed that the " coast " 
here referred to meant the edge of the mainland. A treaty 
between Great Britain and the United States (1903) provided 
that the dispute should be settled by a commission of jurists 
to be appointed by the governments concerned, 

731 . The Isthmian Canal. — Events of the Spanish War and 
our acquisition of Porto Rico and the Philippines showed the 
increasing importance to the United States of a waterway across 
the Isthmus of Panama. Two canal routes were proposed, — 
the Nicaragua and Panama. After years of discussion Con- 
gress adopted the Panama route by passing a law (1902) 
authorizing the President of the United States to negotiate with 
the government of Colombia for a strip of land not less than 



486 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 

six miles wide across the Isthmus at Panama, and to purchase 
for $40,000,000 the incomplete work of the French company 
which had begun the construction of a canal by this route. In 
case satisfactory arrangements could not be made with the 
government of Colombia or with the Panama Company, the 
president was authorized ^o proceed with the construction of a 
canal by the Nicaraguan route. The total estimated cost of the 
Panama canal is $184,000,000. 

732. Expositions. — At Charleston, S. C, in 1902, the South 
Caroliiia Inter-State and West Indiafi Exposition was held, pre- 
senting in beautiful and impressive form the achievements and 
capabilities of the South. 

The World^s Fair and Louisiana Purchase Expositiofi held in 
St. Louis celebrates the one hundredth anniversary of our first 
territorial acquisition, the great Louisiana Purchase. It is our 
fourth World's Fair, and the first held west of the Mississippi. 

733. Oil Wells in Texas. — Near Beaumont, Texas, what 
seems to be the most abundant supply of underground oil in 
the world has been discovered. The oil wells here are nearly 
all ''gushers," the oil coming to the surface in huge fountains 
and with tremendous force. The oil is valuable chiefly for 
fuel, and it has displaced coal on many railroad and steamship 
lines and manufacturing establishments. 



Conclusion. 



We have traced the history of our country from the dim days 
of the far past when sea- roving northmen first touched on its 
shores ; we have followed the brave Columbus in his strange 
voyage over the trackless ocean until he saw the first land of 
the New World ; we have seen how the fair new land became 
dotted here and there by a few widely separated settlements, 



RECENT EVENTS. 



487 



dreading wild beasts and wilder men ; we have seen the sturdy 
settlers hew their way amid countless hardships and dangers 
to lasting success ; we have seen the struggling colonies grow 
strong enough to resist the tyrannical demands of the mother 
country and to establish their independence ; we have beheld 
the novel spectacle of a new form of government created by a 
written document called a Constitution ; we have followed the 
wonderful growth of the new nation as it overspread the conti- 
nent until it reached the Pacific Ocean; — then we have shown 
how the differences in ideas and institutions between the North 
and the South grew into hate and bloodshed ; we have seen 
the matchless courage and devotion to what they believed to 
be right of the men who wore the blue and the men who 
wore the gray ; we have seen how the " Stars and Stripes " 
prevailed over the '' Stars and Bars." 

Our country has entered upon the second century of its in- 
dependence. Its growth has been the wonder of the world. 
It has emerged from the war between the states stronger and 
more closely united. " The past, at least, is secure." New 
perils and problems will arise as conditions change ; but the 
courage, energy, wisdom, love of justice, and love of country 
which have animated our fathers may be trusted to 

guide their sons in the j paths of peace and progress. 



1 ^^4'i.l-l. 








The Capitol at Washington. 



4^^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Topical Analysis (Recent Events). 



o 

H 

< 
Pi 
H 

I— I 



o 

H 

H 
«} 

Q 
BO'S 

n 00 



636. The New President. 

637. Character of the Period. 

^ o TM, o 4.1. oi. i r Withdrawal of Federal troops. 

638. The Southern States, i ^ ,, . ,, , „ ^ 

I Fall of " carpet-bag governments. 

639. Labor Troubles. 

f Silver demonetized. 

640. Financial Legislation. -{ Specie payments resumed. 

i^ National debt refunded, 
f Telephone. 

641. Inventions. -<| Electric light. 

(^ Phonograph. 

642. Yellow Fever in the South. 

643. Presidential Election. 

646. Life and Services of Garfield. 

647. Appointments to Office : Course of New York senators. 

648. Assassination of Garfield. 

649. 650. Accession of Arthur : His life and services. 

651. Star Route Frauds. 

r T. 1 T-. z,-u.- ^ Under Capt. DeLong. 

652. Polar Expeditions, i ^^ , , . ^ , 

1^ Under Lieut. Greely. 

Law against polygamy. 
, _ . . ^ . , .. j Civil service law. 

653. Important Legislation. -j tariff of .883. 

[^ Postal laws. 

654. The Brooklyn Bridge. 

655. Standard Time. 

, ^ _,• J. r Forest fires. 

656. Disasters. <i _, , 

1^ Floods. 

f At Atlanta. 

657. Expositions. -^ At New Orleans. 

[ Centennial celebration at Yorktown. ? 

658. Cincinnati Riot. ' 

/- -o -3 J.- ^ -^1 J.- ( Issues before the people. J 

659. Presidential Election. < ^ , r , , . \ 
^ [ Result of the election. i 



RECENT EVENTS. 489 



' 662. The New President. 

^ 663. The President's Policy- 

o 

H rfi n +h / ^^"^^^^ Grant. 

^ ' * \ Vice-President Hendricks. 

03 f Presidential succession. 

S I Counting of electoral vote. 

g 665. Important Legislation. -^ Interstate Railway Commission. 

B o^ Anti-polygamy law. 

^ I J 1^ Chinese immigration law. 

^§ I 

S ^ 666. Labor Troubles : Chicago Anarchists. 

m 667. The Charleston Earthquake. 

S ^^-. «,, r,x ^ ^ -r •, i r T'he givers and their purpose. 

^ 668. The Statue of Liberty. \ ^.. ^ , , . . . u . . 
^3 y Size and location of the statue. 



S 669. Political Questions : The Mills Tariff Bill. 

^ ^ ., ,.,^, ,. r Issues before the people. 
670. Presidential Election. -^ ^ 1. r .i. 1 I- 
l^ [^ Result or the election. 

673. The New President. 

f Governments represented. 

674. The Pan-American Congress. \ The meeting and its purpose. 
^ ' 1^ Results. 

2 , _x . ^ . , .. ^ The McKinley Tariff Bill. 

H 675. Important Legislation. <; t,, ci, ^^ u ■ 

<j -■ 1^ The Sherman silver purchasing act. 

H f The New Orleans Mafia. 

t-H ^.^ 676. Diplomatic Troubles. ■{ Dispute over Samoan Islands. 

g g [ Threatened war with Chili. 

o^^ 677. New War Ships. 

^ 00 

« f Oklahoma opened to settlement. 

g C78. Minor Events. | ^.^^^ jo„„„o„„ flood. 

§ 679. Four New States. 

W .. f Revolution on the Island. 

680. Hawaii. { a^ ^ A 
{ Steps toward annexation. 

681. "The Eleventh Census : Growth of the country. 

Issues before the people. 



682. The Presidential Election. , ^ , r , , • 

1 Result of the election. 



490 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



8 " 

O w 

o 7 
w 

c« . 

CO o 

« H 

Q 



686. 

687. 

688. 

689. 
690. 
691. 



r Financial crisis. 
685. Silver Legislation. <[ Extra session of Congress. 
L Repeal of Sherman Act. 
f The Wilson Bill. 
Revision of the Tariff. <[ Disagreement between Senate 

L and House. 
Act to admit Utah. 

Quarrel with England. 
Settlement of the disputes. 
Columbian Exposition. 
Chicago Strike. 
Atlanta Exposition. 

( f Among the old soldiers. 

6- IT fr/q"Pr J ^^^ Force Bill repealed. 

I Confederate disabilities 



Behring Sea Arbitration 



•\s, 



removed. 



694. Venezuela Controversy. 

695. Presidential Election. 



2 ^ 



f^ 



05 H 



698. The New President. 

. „ • , X • , ^- r Dingley Bill. 

699. Congressional Legislation. <„,,.- 

^ \ Wolcott Commission. 

700. The Trans-Mississippi Exposition. 

' Spanish misgovernment of Cuba, 
Cuban revolution of 1895. 



701-706. Causes of the War. < 



Sympathy of the United States. 
Spain promises liberal policy. 
Destruction of the Maine. 
Action of Congress, 
f Strength of the army and navy. 
The volunteers enlisted. 
Increase of navy, 
r Dewey's squadron. 

The Battle of Manila. \ ^"^^""^ ^^"^'^^ ^^^^ 

I Destruction of Spanish fleet. 

L Destruction of battery at Cavite. 

The blockade begun. 

Search for the Spanish fleet. 

Sinking of the Merrimac. 



707. The Call to Arms. 



708. 



709. The Blockade of Cuba. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



491 



s 


^ 





^ 


l—t 




H 


"^ 


< 


8 




e 


09 




1— 1 




S 


M 


1 


t 


<J 


w 


tJi 


CZ) 




l-H 


>< S 


W <1 


•^ 


(U 


S 


w 


M 


pl^) 


u 


H 



•J <^ 
w « 

> H 
o 2 

o a 
< 



710-7 

713- 
714. 

715- 
716. 

717. 
718. 

719. 
720. 

721. 

. 722. 
723- 
724. 

725- 



12. Capture of 

Santiago. | 



Landing of Shafter's troops. 
Las Guasimas. 

General attack ; ElCaney; San Juan. 
Destruction of Cervera's fleet. 
1^ Surrender of Santiago. 

Annexation of Hawaii. 

Helpless condition of Spain. 
Peace. <( The Peace Protocol. 
Capture of Manila. 

Provisions of the Treaty. 

Ratification by U. S. Senate. 

Trouble with Filipinos. 

f Cost in lives. 
J Cost in money. 
Results of the War. i r^,^^^-,^^-^^ .Ganges. 

L Indirect results. 



The Treaty of Peace. 



The Boxer Uprising 

in China. 



J 



The Boxers and their victims 
Conditions in Peking. 
Relief of the city. 
L Punishment of China. 
Destruction wrought. 
The Galveston Storm. <J Sympathy with the sufferers. 
L The city rebuilt. 

f Issues and candidates. 
Presidential Election of 1900. <J^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ election. 

^ Date and place. 
The Pan-American Exposition. <| Purpose. 

I, Distinctive features. 
Assassination of President McKinley. 

The New President. 

f Action of Czar Nicholas. 
The Hague Tribunal, -i Meeting of the Peace Conference. 

L Result. 

f History of the dispute. 
The Pious Fund Dispute. | j^^ settlement. 



726. Second Pan-American 



f Date and place of meeting. 



<! Purpose. 
Congress. [^ Recommendations. 



492 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Source of our coal supply. 

S ^1. i-i 1 ox -1 i Demands of the strikers, 

o 727. The Coal Strike. 



I 



President Roosevelt's action. 
<j L Settlement of the strike. 

H 728. The Republic f Withdrawal of United States troops. 

of Cuba. \ Independent government organized. 

g ^ 729. Treaty with Cuba. 
Q -^ ^ r Gold discovered. 

S 730. Alaska. <( The boundary dispute, 
r. ^-^ L Treaty with Great Britain. 

M ^1. T X,- • /^ , r The two routes. 

W 731. The Isthmian Canal. <^ ^ .. 

^ 1^ Decision of Congress. 

5? .^ ._,. r Inter-State at Charleston. 

§ 732. Expositions. St- t3 u . c. t • 

*-' 1^ Louisiana Purchase at St. Louis. 



Qi 



723- Oil Wells in Texas. 



APPENDIX A. 

AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

By Leonard Lemmon. 



The Father of American Literature. — Washington Irving 
(i 783-1859), our first great author, was born in New York 
during the Revolutionary War, and was named for the com- 
mander of the American , _,^^_^,„ ^ 

forces. His family was .*, '- z^/;^ ' 
well-to-do, and Irving 
had an easy time. He 
spent some holidays ex- 
ploring the country of 
the Hudson. He made 
an extended tour of 
Europe. He studied 
some, and read a good 
deal. Solely as a means 
of amusement, he began 
to write. His first book, 
"A History of New York 
by Died rich Knicker- 
bocker," presents a 
humorous, burlesque 
view of the old Dutch 
life of New Amsterdam. 
When Irving was thirty- 




Washington Irving. 



11 APPENDIX A. 

five years old, the Irving firm failed in business, and Washington 
turned to literature to make a living. "The Sketch Book" 
was the first fruit of this serious attempt at authorship. It 
contained " Rip Van Winkle " and " The Legend of Sleepy 
Hollow," now two of the best known short stories in our 
literature. From this time, for forty years he was busy writing 
books. Many of these books were written about subjects of 
particular interest to Americans. The " Life of Columbus," 
" Life of Washington," " Astoria," " Captain Bonneville," are 
of the American series. " Alhambra," " Conquest of Granada," 
" Legends of the Conquest of Spain," are books about Spain. 
Besides these are "Mahomet and His Successors," "Life of 
Goldsmith," and others. 

In representing our country at foreign courts, Irving spent 
many years in Europe ; but the latter part of his life was passed 
at " Sunnyside," his estate on the Hudson. 

Because Irving was the first native American to win great 
distinction as an author, he is called the " Father of American 
Literature." It was fitting that the namesake of the "Father 
of our Country " should be the "father" of our literature. 

The First Great Novelist. — James Fenimore Cooper (1789- 
185 1) passed his boyhood in a pioneer home on the frontier of 
New York. He spent nearly three years at Yale College, and 
subsequently more than three years in the U. S. navy. He 
was led to write his first book by accident. He was so dis- 
satisfied with an English novel that had fallen into his hands 
that he asserted that he could write a better one. He wrote 
" Precaution," to prove that he could. This novel was a poor 
one, but it seemed to satisfy Cooper, for he persevered in the 
work so lightly begun, and before his death he wrote more than 
thirty novels. Several of these stories exhibit the pioneer life 
of the wilderness with which he grew familiar in his boyhood. 
They are "The Deerslayer," "The Pathfinder," "The Last of 



AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



Ill 



the Mohicans," "The Pioneers," "The Prairie"; and from 
the name of their hero they are called the " Leather-Stocking 
Series." 

But Cooper had spent several years as a sailor, and he wrote a 
series of sea stories. " The Pilot," " The Red Rover," " The 
Two Admirals," are well-known sea tales. " The Spy " and 
" Lionel Lincoln " are stories of the Revolution. 

The " Leather-Stocking Series " gives a romantic view of 
Indian and pioneer adventure, and are distinctively American. 
The sea tale was at that day as fresh a field as the Indian life 
itself. Cooper ranks as the first great American novelist. 



The Father of American Poetry. — William Cullen Brya7it 
(1794- 1878) was born 
in Massachusetts, and 
spent his early life on a 
farm. He loved books 
and nature, and was a 
very precocious scholar. 
His first important poem, 
"Thanatopsis," was 
written when the author 
was but nineteen. When 
it was printed, four years 
later, it made the author 
famous. Though Bryant 
wrote many poems after 
this, he never wrote a 
better one. Late in life, 
he made excellent trans- 
lations of the " Iliad " 
and the " Odyssey." 

In 1825 Bryant removed to New York, and lived there the 
remainder of his life, more than half a century. He was for 




William Cullen Bryant. 



IV APPENDIX A. 

many years the editor of a daily newspaper. He was an 
eminent and a model citizen. He was our first great poet. 

Minor Contemporaries. — Friends of Irving in New York 
were two poets, Fitz-Gree?ie Halleck 2iV\d Joseph Rodman Drake. 
The first was the author of a large volume of poems, of which 
" Marco Bozzaris " seems to have the most vitality ; the second 
was the author of a long poem, ''The Culprit Fay," written to 
prove that a successful poem, based on American scenery and 
with an American movement, was possible. Drake's "Ameri- 
can Flag " was a very popular poem. 

A Later Contemporary. — Edgar AHaft Foe (1809-1849) 
was born twenty-six years after Irving and fifteen years after 
Bryant ; but Irving survived him ten years and Bryant twenty- 
nine, so that all his writing was done during the lives of these 
first great writers, though they began before he did and con- 
tinued after he was dead. 

Poe was left an orphan in his babyhood, and was adopted by 
Mr. John Allan, a wealthy Virginia gentleman. He attended 
school in England and at the University of Virginia and at 
West Point. He early began to write poetry, and his first 
volume, "Al Aaraaf/' was published when its author was but 
twenty years old. Poetry was not very remunerative and Poe, 
who had quarreled with his foster-father, was very poor. With 
the tale, "A MS. Found in a Bottle," he won a hundred-dollar 
prize. From this good start his fortunes improved. He became 
the editor of " The Southern Literary Messenger," a magazine 
published at Richmond. He was afterward editor or chief con- 
tributor to several other magazines. He wrote a large number 
of short tales. His critical writings make a large volume. No 
American poems have been more widely read than some that 
he wrote. He was an important figure in the literary life of 
the time. 



AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. V 

Of his prose tales, "The Black Cat," ''The Gold Bug," 
"The Murders in the Rue Morgue," are the most widely 
known. They have been translated into several European 
languages. Of his poems, "The Raven," "The Bells," and 
" Annabel Lee," are familiar in every household. 

Nathaniel Parker Willis was a contemporary and a friend of 
Poe, and was engaged with him for a short time in editing a 
magazine, "The Mirror." Willis, like Poe, wrote both prose 
and poetry. "Absalom," " Jephthah's Daughter," and some 
other poems on Bible subjects were once popular. 

The Golden Age. — In different states and at about the same 
time — there being not more than six years from the birth of 
the oldest to that of the youngest — and about a decade after 
Bryant's birth, five writers who have produced the great body 
of our pure literature and have raised it to its highest mark of 
renown, were born into the world. These writers are Ralph 
Waldo Emerson^ Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Wadsworth Long- 
fellow, John Greenleaf Whittier, and Oliver Wendell Holmes. 
Fortune often threw these writers together. They were 
strong personal friends and all friends of Bryant, and they 
encouraged and applauded each other's work. They differ 
essentially in their several writings. Emerson was a sage 
devoted to plain living and high thinking ; Hawthorne was one 
of the world's greatest romancers ; Longfellow was a singer 
who loved the sweet and joyous of life ; Whittier was by turns 
a crusader and a pastoral poet ; Holmes was a humorist and a 
satirist. When these writers were in the fullness of their 
powers and their genius most creative, then, beyond question, 
was the Golden Age of American letters. There have been 
great achievements since their time, but the literary heavens 
have never been bright with stars since their lights were 
dimmed. 



VI 



APPENDIX A. 



mi^ 



The Sage of Concord. — Emerson (1803-1882) was born in 
Boston. He was well taught at home when a boy, but at 
fourteen he entered Harvard College. He studied theology 
and became a minister, with a charge in Boston. He soon 
gave up preaching and removed to Concord, where he spent 
the remainder of his life. He devoted his time to writing and 

lecturing. He delivered 
lectures in most of the 
cities of the east, and in 
many of them he lectured 
several times. He was the 
first to show to Americans 
the possibilities and the 
importance of the lecture 
platform. His prose writ- 
ings are in the form of 
essays. His first book, 
" Nature " (1839), created 
a deep impression, and 
heralded a new and strong 
literary light. His works 
include *' Representative 
Men" (1850), "English 
Traits" (1856), "The 
Conduct of Life" (i860), a volume of poems, etc. His poems are 
of the philosophic type, but his " Concord Hymn," referring to the 
Revolutionary battle at Concord Bridge, won a popular success. 
Emerson had a great influence upon the thought of his time. 
There were a number of writers who made his works their 
chief study, and were proud to call themselves his disciples. 
H. D. Thoreau was one of these disciples. For a time he 
lived alone in a cabin in the forest studying and writing about 
nature. Margaret Fuller and A. B. Alcott were other writers 
who were followers of Emerson, but their literary merit is small, 




Ralph Waldo Emerson. 



AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



Vll 



The Great Romancer Hawthorne (1804-1864) was born 

in Salem, Mass. He was graduated from Bowdoin College. 
He was much alone in his boyhood and youth, and the solitude 
seemed to suit him. He began writing early, but received 
little encouragement from the public. To use his own expres- 
sion he " was for years the obscurest man of letters in America." 
The historian Bancroft, ..va'i^lliiiWSiSiffi ■:':'■. '^m 

collector of the port of 

Boston, appointed Haw- - _^ 

thorne to a minor position 
in the service. Later, 
Hawthorne became sur- 
veyor at the Salem Cus- 
tom House. When his 
schoolmate and friend, 
Franklin Pierce, became 
president, he was ap- 
pointed consul to Liver- 
pool. He spent several 
years abroad in England 
and in Italy. He re- 
turned to America in 
i860, and took up re- 
sidence in Concord. 
Hawthorne's first suc- 
cess was gained with 
"The Scarlet Letter" (1850), although he had previously 
published "Twice-Told Tales" (1837) and "Mosses from 
an Old Manse" (1846). "The Blithedale Romance" (1852) 
and " The Marble Faun " are later romances, published 
during his life. After his death, several studies for romances 
were published. His " English Note Book," " Italian Note 
Book," and " Our Old Home " are records of his observations 
abroad. 




Nathaniel Hawthorne 



Vlll 



APPENDIX A. 



He was a master of pure, simple English. He is America's 
greatest imaginative writer. 



The Singer. — Longfellow (1807-1882) was born in Maine. 
He attended school at Bowdoin College, where he and Haw- 
thorne were friends and 
classmates. After some 
years of study abroad, 
he became a professor 
in Bowdoin. From 1835 
to 1854 he was professor 
of Modern Languages in 
Harvard College. The 
termination of his pro- 
fessorship did not ter- 
minate his residence in 
( 'ambridge. For nearly 
fifty years, till his death, 
the house Washington 
had occupied as head- 
(juarters was his home. 
I [e lived a quiet, un- 
eventful life, brightened 

Henry W. Longfellow. ^^^^^ ^^ ^^.^^ ^^ EuropC. 

His correct and peaceful life is reflected in his poetry. He 
writes of the affections, and he expresses refined sentiments ; 
he touches the heart with pathetic incidents; he gently urges 
us to the better life. His verse is always smooth and 
musical. 

Many of his poems attest his love for children. The long 
poem, " Evangeline," founded upon the forcible removal of the 
Acadians, is a classic in our language. The story is a touching 
one, and the treatment is musical and appropriate. " Hiawatha " 
is, perhaps, the poet's best work. Its noble conception is 




AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



IX 



entirely original. The form of the verse is also original, and 

is admirably adapted to its use. The poem presents the ideal 

of Indian life. The author translated Dante's " Divine 
Comedy," spending some years upon it. 



The Crusader. — Whittier (1807-1892) was a New England 
boy, born on a farm in Massachusetts. He was familiar with 
poverty and hard work. ^ 

He had access to but few " ^"% - 

books, and he received 
but a poor education. 
But, with the chances all 
against him, he became a 
famous poet. A copy of 
the poems of Burns which 
fell into his hands kept 
the poetic fire alight. 
His first printed poem 
appeared in a local paper 
— a paper that has since 
become historic. The 
editor, interested in the 
poem, sought the acquain- 
tance of the poet. He 
found a youth ploughing 
in the field. The acquain- 
tance so begun ripened 
into friendship. The editor 
of the abolition of slavery. 




John Greenleaf Whittier. 



Garrison, was an ardent advocate 
Whittier adopted the same views, 
and in subsequent years edited or helped to edit several of the 
abolition papers. In his youth he had supported himself by 
teaching school or by making shoes, but his reputation grew, 
so that subsequent to the War he was able to support himself 
with his pen. 



X APPENDIX A. 

Whittier believed in the extreme theories of the AboHtionists. 
Most of his early poetry was written to further the cause of 
emancipation. He was willing to sacrifice beauty of composi- 
tion to the needs of the cause, and often did so. " Voices of 
Freedom" and "In War Time" belong to this early poetry 
written in advocacy of freedom for the slave. 

After the war was over and the negroes were freed, Whittier 
became the poet of peaceful, happy, rural life. " Snow-Bound " 
(1866) is one of the most nearly perfect idylls in our literature. 
"The Tent on the Beach," "Among the Hills," and many 
other poems reflect the same love for the simple, serene, isolated 
life of the New England people of some years ago. 



The Humorist. — Dr. Holmes (1809-1894) was born in 
Cambridge, Mass. He was graduated from Harvard, with 

^ ::;■ first honors, in his 
twentieth year. He be- 
' - "" gan the study of law, 

but abandoned it for 
medicine. He spent 
three years abroad study- 
ing anatomy. In 1836 
he was appointed to a 
professorship in Dart- 
mouth Medical School. 
He removed to Boston 
in 1840; he made this 
city his home for more 
than fifty years. In 1847 
he was appointed pro- 
fessor of anatomy and 
physiology in the Har- 
vard Medical School. 
Oliver v/endeii Holmes. Hc wrotc many articles 




AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. XI 

on subjects connected with his profession and was an authority 
in it. But most of his writings are of an entirely different kind. 
He wrote a large volume of poems, two novels, '^ Elsie Ven- 
ner," and "The Guardian Angel," "The Autocrat" series, — 
running comments upon a variety of topics, — consisting of 
"The Autocrat at the Breakfast Table," "The Professor at the 
Breakfast Table," and "The Poet at the Breakfast Table." 
He is the author of two or three of our most celebrated 
humorous poems and of many that rank second only to his 
own best. "The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay," "How the Old 
Horse won the Bet," "The Hot Season," "The Comet" are 
among these humorous poems. But he has serious and 
pathetic poems as well. " The Last Leaf " and " The Cham- 
bered Nautilus" are beautiful in sentiment and perfect in work- 
manship. He was an extremely patriotic American, and a 
large number of his poems were written in celebration of 
national holidays, ceremonies, or events. " Old Ironsides," 
the first of his poems to gain wide popularity, saved the ship 
Constitution from destruction by the government. 

Our Representative Man of Letters. —/a7nes Russell Lowell 
(1819-1891) was born in Cambridge ten years after the birth 
of Holmes, twelve years after the birth of Longfellow. He 
was fifteen years younger than Hawthorne, sixteen years 
younger than Emerson, twenty-five years younger than Bryant. 
He was, therefore, near to the first great group of writers, but 
not of it. He was graduated from Harvard in 1838. When 
Longfellow resigned his professorship in Harvard (1855) Lowell 
was chosen to fill it. He was the first editor of the " Adantic 
Monthly," his connection with it lasting from 1852 to 1862. For 
nearly ten years he was one of the editors of the " North Ameri- 
can Review." From 1877 to 1880 he represented the United 
States at the court of Spain. In 1880 he was appointed minister 
to England; he held the position for five years. 



Xll 



APPENDIX A. 



He was an eloquent advocate of the emancipation of the 
slaves, and some of his short poems and the " Biglow Papers " 

^^^ advocated this cause. 

But only a small part 
of his poetry is argu- 
mentative. "The 
Vision of Sir Launfal " 
m imaginative treat- 
1 nt of an old subject. 
II e" Fable for Critics" 
lews in racy verse 
I work of the promi- 
it authors of its day. 
" The Cathedral " is a 
noble discussion of 
modern problems. But 
not all of his poems 
can be named ; there 
are other long poems 
and many short ones. 
Lowell was also a 
critic of great ability, 
and has printed valuable studies of some of the world's 
great authors. He has written delightful essays on various 
subjects. 

Because of the high public position he has held and honored 
and of the breadth and quality of his literary work he is, per- 
haps, our most representative author. 




James Russell Lowell, 



The Historians. — America has been too busy making 
history to write much of it, still we have something to show. 
George Bancroft's " History of the United States " is the best 
that has been written of the colonial development of our 
country. It shows the origin and the working of the forces 



AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. Xlll 

that have made us the nation that we are. It reaches only to 
the Constitutional period. It is conscientious, fair, and broad. 
Francis Farkmaft wrote charming accounts of the explora- 
tion and settlement of the Mississippi region. Professor 
JoJm Bach McMaster has begun a '' History of the People 
of the United States " at the point where Bancroft dropped 
his. A number of writers on the Civil War have put 
forth pamphlets or ambitious volumes. Horace Greeley's 
" Great American Conflict " is a notable contribution to the 
anti-slavery view of it. Alexander H. Stephens^ in " The War 
between the States " discusses the same subject from the 
states' rights point of view. Jefferson Davis, in his " Rise and 
Fall of the Confederate Government," gives a full account of 
the great events in which he played such a conspicuous part. 
W. H. Prescott, in the " Conquest of Mexico " and the " Con- 
quest of Peru " turns the attention of Americans to some of 
the earliest European interferences with political affairs on this 
hemisphere. John Lothrop Motley, from the vantage-ground of 
free America, writes histories of magnificent struggles for free- 
dom in "The Rise of the Dutch Republic" and "The History 
of the United Netherlands." 

The Later Literature of the East. — Our later literature 
has not shown the powder of the literature of the time already 
portrayed. There has been much more writing, and much 
effort has been expended in developing new forms and in 
adapting old ones, but recently there has been no author whose 
writings showed the solid worth of the great authors of our 
first golden days. In the East Bayard Taylor (182 5-1 878) 
shows the best achievement for this period. He is the author 
of several very interesting books of travel. After walking 
through the most interesting countries of Europe he wrote 
" Views Afoot." He visited nearly every inhabited part of the 
globe and wrote books about what he saw. 



XIV APPENDIX A. 

Of his novels "Hannah Thurston" and "The Story of 
Kennett " may be mentioned. 

But it was in poetry that Taylor was most ambitious. He is 
the author of a large volume of poetry and of a volume of 
"Dramatic Works." Some of his short poems — notably 
"Amran's Wooing" and the "Bedouin Love Song" — are 
strong in feeling and of exquisite workmanship. Many of his 
longer poems are rich in lyrical passages, and they show a 
thorough knowledge of poetical forms ; but they often lack 
the complete majesty of the theme upon which they are written. 
Thomas Bailey Aldrich is the most exquisite of our lyric poets. 
His verse is of the simple and apparently spontaneous kind 
that requires so much art in the writing and reads so easily 
and musically that it sings itself into the memory at once. 
" Baby Bell," a touching account of the death of a little girl, 
has secured a permanent place in our literature. " The Story 
of a Bad Boy" describes. in prose mischievous juvenile pranks 
highly interesting to boys both young and old. 

But the largest part of the writing of this time is fiction. 
Novels with all sorts of themes from all sorts of people are 
being continually issued. Even schisms have arisen, and 
writers profess themselves of this or that school. Of the so- 
called "realists," Henty Jaijies and W. D. Howells are the 
chief American representatives. 

The novels of Henry James are used largely to contrast 
national customs. " The American," " The Europeans," 
" Daisy Miller " are of this international type, — a class of 
novels for which James himself in these very books set the 
model "The Portrait of a Lady," "The Bostonians," 
"Princess Casamassima" incidentally depict national pecuHar- 
ities, but their chief force is spent upon the analysis of 
character. His novels seldom have a plot and they often end 
in what seems to be the middle of the story. The interest of his 
work lies in the bright, witty dialogue and in the keen, subtle 



AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



XV 



dissection of motive. The author is a literary critic who 
speaks from wide culture, and with great power of discrimina- 
tion and rare delicacy of statement. His " Nathaniel Haw- 
thorne," in the English Men of Letters series, is a sympathetic 
study of our great romancer. 

Mr. Howells was born in Ohio of poor but ambitious 
parents. He learned to set type and helped to " edit " a 
country newspaper. His 
boyhood was spent in 
hard work. In a series of 
articles recently printed, 
entitled "A Boy's Town," 
one may learn of these 
early experiences. From 
newspaper work he under- 
took magazine sketches, 
and finally he became a 
novelist. He was for 
years editor of the "At- 
lantic Monthly." Later 
he edited a department 
of literary criticism in 
"Harper's Monthly." 
He is thoroughly identi- 
fied with America, and 

nearly all of his novels are studies of American life. -"The 
Lady of the Aroostook," "A Modern Instance," "Dr. Breen's 
Practice," " The Rise of Silas Lapham " are among his best 
stories. He is the author of several bright comedies and 
farces, such as "The Mouse Trap," " The Garroters," "The 
Counterfeit Presentment." 

Julian Hawthorne' s views of fiction are very different from 
those held by the "realists." He seeks to set before us 
stirring examples that shall spur us to higher endeavor. He '\z 




Howells. 



XVI APPENDIX A. 

willing to tell us a story that has a beginning and an end. He 
tries to portray our highest inner nature. In working to this 
end he ignores the conventional, every-day acts which are 
common to all men and do not, therefore, reveal character. 
He seeks rather to try his men and women by crucial tests. 
Therefore his plots involve great crimes, profound expiation, 
glorious moral victory, deep condemnation. " Bressant," 
"Idolatry," "Sebastian Strome," "Fortune's Fool," "Sinfire" 
are novels that reveal the soul of man in tragic situations. 

F. Mai'-ion Craivford may be classed with the " Romantic " 
school. He is not above telling a good old-fashioned love 
story. His heroes are noble chivalrous men, his heroines are 
lovely women; and sooner or later, whatever the vicissitudes 
along the way, the knight wins the lady and the couple are 
happy ever afterward. " Mr. Isaacs," " Saracinesca, " " The 
Roman Singer " are three popular books from his long list of 
popular books. 

Though Fraiik R. Stockton imitates the plausible manner of 
the Realists he imagines plots that are far removed from daily 
experience. In " Negative Gravity" he suspends a man evenly 
balanced in mid air. In "The Transferred Ghost" a spirit 
comes back to earth and plays a lively part in the love- 
experiences of two people. In another story a spirit is brought 
to earth and embodied in a young man, and after that it is dis- 
embodied or reembodied at will. The author has written 
several charming stories for children. 

The Beginning in the West. — The West was necessarily 
late in adding anything to our literature ; but its beginning, 
when at last the hour arrived, was notable. Its first authors 
extended their local reputations to the East, and, for various 
reasons, are conspicuous among the American authors known 
in Europe. The West possesses a worthy poet in Joaquin 
Miller. He loves her vast solitudes, her virgin forests, her 



AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. XVll 

rugged sierras ; he professes himself, and is, indeed, a sym- 
pathetic child of this wild region. His poems express fire and 
passion, and unbounded self-confidence ; they show a free spirit 
untrammeled by convention or tradition. They are musical 
and eloquent, often dramatic. 

Bret Harte shares with Miller the honor and the profit of 
revealing the West to the East. He spent some time on the 
Pacific slope in the years when mining for precious metals was 
the chief occupation of the people. His sketches of the wild 
life of this region at this time are among the most entertaining 
short stories in the language. "How Santa Claus came to 
Simpson's Bar" tells how the rude miners were touched by a 
child's pathetic reference to Christmas and Santa Claus. "The 
Luck of Roaring Camp " was a baby, and the interest the 
miners felt in it was the cause of the reformation of the camp. 
Gamblers, stage-drivers, saloon-keepers, parsons, miners play 
picturesque parts in his stories. He has written some long 
stories, but was not successful with them. 

Mark Twain is the humorist of this region. In " Roughing 
It " and in several short sketches he has shown the laughable 
side of the prospector's life. But the West is not his only field. 
"The Innocents Abroad," a story of a trip through Europe, 
made the author's reputation, and nothing he has written has 
surpassed it. 

Edward Eggleston^ in his " Hoosier Schoolmaster," "The 
Circuit Rider," "Roxy," etc., gives us a portrayal of pioneer 
life in Indiana and Illinois that is faithful to the minutest detail. 
He has also written several books that are favorites with young 
people. 

The Renewal in the South. — The first poet in the South 
in point of time and in fame is Poe, already noticed. Con- 
temporary with him, and living many years after his death, 
was the South's most assiduous man of letters in the period 



XVlll 



APPENDIX A. 



preceding the War ; namely, . William Gilmore Simms. He 
edited Shakespeare, printed political articles, prepared histories, 
biographies, and criticisms, and wrote a number of novels of 
adventure with the scenes laid in the Southern states and the 
motives founded on the traditions or history of the same region. 
John Esten Cooke, in Virginia, published before the War ''The 
Virginia Comedians," a novel depicting the ante-bellum life of 
the Southern planter. Henry Timrod, a South Carolina poet 
who wrote warm, vivid verse, contributed to the Southern 
Literary Messenger, of which Poe was, at one time, editor. 
With the exception of the pathetic poems of Father Ryan, the 
Laureate of the Lost Cause, and occasional war lyrics from 
Paul Hamilton Hayne, who had previously published some noble 

poems, and Cooke's 
account of the great 
struggle, the War silenced 
all voices in the South. 
The singer was too sad 
to sing ; the dramatist, 
torn and bleeding, had 
no heart for mimic tra- 
gedy ; the novelist was 
overwhelmed with a 
calamity in real life. 
But the South is full of 
color ; it is bright with a 
charming colonial his- 
tory; it is peopled with 
the descendants of 
picturesque races ; elo- 
Sidney Lanier.t qucncc and poctry are 

natural to it: in the full- 
ness of time this desolated Eden began to blossom again. 

1 By permission of Charles Scribner's Sons. 




AN OUTLINE OF AMERICAN LITERATURE. 



XIX 



The greatest poet in the South in recent years, and one of 
the most original America has produced, is the Georgia poet, 
Sidney Lanier. He made an exhaustive study of the structure 
of English verse, and elaborated a new theory as to its con- 
struction. He was a critic who applied fundamental tests with 
great keenness. No American poet has excelled him in melody, 
— comparing total products, no one has equalled him. His 
" Song of the Chattahoochie '' is as musical as Tennyson's 
" Brook." Many English critics think him our greatest artist ; 
his own countrymen — except here and there — have not found 
him out yet ; but his day will come. Still younger poets are 
' Willie Hayne, Madison Caweifi, and Robert Burns Wilson, who 
are just beginning to try their voices. 

In fiction some strong work is being done. Thomas Nelson 
Page is in this day the South's best representative man of 
letters. His "Marse 
Chan " and " Meh Lady " 
are two of the strongest 
short stories of recent 
years. He has written 
numbers of others 
("Elsket,"^' Polly," "Ole 
Stracted," etc.) not quite 
so good as these, perhaps, 
but very good indeed. 
Many of these stories are 
told in negro dialect ; all 
of them are stories of 
Southern life. His vol- 
ume " The Old South " is 
a collection of studies of 
the conditions of life in 
" Old Virginia " and of the 




T' omas Nelson Pag(_ 



1 By permission of Charles Scribner's Sons. 



XX APPENDIX A. 

problems of the present day. James Lane Allen in " Flute and 
Violin " has given us a collection of short stories that deal in a 
poetic way with pathetic themes. His " Blue Grass Region " 
is an interesting account of the methods of life of his native 
state. George W. Cable in "The Grandissimes," " Bonaventure," 
"Old Creole Days," etc., presents studies of some Southern 
subjects. "In the Tennessee Mountains," "Down Lost Creek," 
"The Ha'nt that Walks Chilhowee" are intense tragedies of the 
simple but passionate mountaineers of Tennessee. They are 
written by Miss Murfree, who gained her fame under the pseu- 
donym of Charles Egbert Craddock. Joel Chandler Harris finds 
some recompense for the negro, who has cost the South so 
much, in the fables that spring from his simple, credulous, and 
sometimes poetic imagination. His "Uncle Remus" has been 
read by young people and by old people with young hearts, all 
over' the land. 



APPENDIX B. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 



Colonial Era. 

Berkeley, Sir William (1610-1677). — Governor of Virginia Colony 
for twenty-seven years ; highly educated, handsome, of polished manner 
and exquisite dress, he was one of the most accomplished cavaliers of the 
day. He began his rule by adopting most salutary measures, and was 
popular with the .people. During Cromwell's ascendancy Berkeley offered 
an asylum in Virginia to the English Royalists, and Virginia was the last 
country belonging to England that submitted to Cromwell's authority. 
On the death of Cromwell's governor of Virginia, the Assembly recalled 
Berkeley, who had retired to his plantation. Sir William forthwith pro- 
claimed Charles II., then in exile, " King of England, Scotland, France, 
Ireland, and Virginia." As he advanced in years Berkeley grew tyrannical. 
He persecuted the Puritans, opposed popular education, was indifferent in 
dealing with hostile Indians (see §§ 94 and 230). When he was recalled 
by the king, the colonists fired guns and lighted bonfires in token of their 
joy. The old man died, it is said, of grief and wounded pride a short time 
after his return to England. 

Edwards, Jonathan (1703-175S). — New England theologian and 
metaphysician. Entering Yale College at twelve, he was graduated at six- 
teen. He began preaching to a Presbyterian congregation in New York ; 
was soon afterward called to the church at Northampton, Mass., where he 
remained for twenty-three years, acquiring fame throughout New England 
as a preacher. Compelled to resign his pastorate on account of his views 
on church government, he became a missionary to the Indians. In his 
retirement among the savages he produced his work on " The Freedom of 
the Will," considered to be one of the greatest efforts of the human mind, 



XXll APPENDIX B. 

whatever may be thought of the conclusions reached. He was elected 
President of Princeton College, New Jersey, but died a short time after his 
inauguration. 

Penn, William (1644-1718). — Founder of Pennsylvania. When a 
student at Oxford he became a Quaker and withdrew from the Established 
Church. He and his friends refused to wear the student's gown, and tore 
it away from those who did. He was expelled from the University. His 
father treated him with great severity, but finally agreed to tolerate all his 
Quaker views, provided he would take off his hat before the king, the 
Duke of York, and himself. On young Penn's refusal, his father turned 
him out of the house, but his mother kept him supplied with money. He 
became a Quaker preacher, and was several times arrested and imprisoned. 
Nevertheless, he was an accomplished courtier, and he obtained from 
Charles II., as a refuge for his brethren, a tract of 40,000 square miles in 
America in payment of a debt of $80,000 due his father. He founded 
Philadelphia and governed his colony in person from 1682 to 1684. He 
made a famous treaty with the Indians, " the only treaty which was never 
sworn to and never broken." Because of his personal friendship for the 
banished king, James II., he was accused of treason. He was imprisoned 
and his proprietary rights were taken away, but these were afterwards 
restored. He died at the age of seventy-four. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter (i 552-1 618). — English courtier and navigator, 
whose efforts at colonization led to the founding of Virginia. When seven- 
teen years of age he left college to become a soldier on the continent of 
Europe; returning to England, he became interested in the colonizing 
schemes of his half-brother, Humphrey Gilbert. He won Queen Eliza- 
beth's favor by spreading his scarlet cloak over a muddy place for the queen 
to walk upon. He obtained a charter for forming settlements in the region 
now included in Virginia, and secured in his charter the provision that the 
settlers should have all the rights of Englishmen, and should be governed 
by laws made by themselves so long as they conformed to the laws of 
England. This grant of rights was renewed in subsequent charters of 
Virginia, and was the foundation of colonial resistance to British oppres- 
sion. The death of Queen Elizabeth was a fatal blow to Raleigh's for- 
tunes. On a false charge of treason he was imprisoned for thirteen years 
and finally executed. 

Williams, Roger (1606-1683). — Founder and governor of Rhode 
Island. Born in Wales ; upon his graduation from college he became a 
minister of the Church of England. Soon afterward, imbibing dissenting 
views, he came to Massachusetts as an extreme Puritan, and later became 
a Separatist. His teaching that the king had no right to grant to settlers 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. XXlll 

the land of the Indians without purchasing it and that the magistrates 
should not interfere in matters of religious belief led to his banishment 
from the Massachusetts Colony. Williams then founded the Colony of 
Rhode Island. At Providence he established the first Baptist Church in 
America. He afterwards withdrew from the church and never reentered 
it. His great influence with the Indians was the means of saving the New 
England settlements from destruction. In the midst of a persecuting age 
and people, he established the principle of complete religious freedom. 



Era of Revolution. 

Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790). — Philosopher and statesman. He 
was born in Boston, the youngest son of a family of seventeen children. 
He ran away from his elder brother, to whom he had been apprenticed as 
printer, and arrived in Philadelphia with one dollar in his pocket. He 
soon found employment as a printer. After visiting England he finally 
established himself in Philadelphia as editor of the Pennsylvania Gazette. 
His "Almanac " became famous throughout the world. In 1754 Franklin 
proposed a plan of union for the colonies which was adopted by the 
Albany Congress (composed of the delegates from seven of the colonies), 
but which failed of ratification by the colonial assemblies. He was one of 
the Committee of Congress to draw up the Declaration of Independence. 
Ambassador to France during the Revolution, he did much to secure for 
us the aid of the French government. He was a member of the Com- 
mission that framed the treaty of peace with England, and of the Conven- 
tion that drew up the Constitution of the United States. He invented a 
stove with an open front, known as the Franklin stove. His experiments 
with a kite in a thunderstorm led to the discovery that lightning and elec- 
tricity are the same, and to the invention of the lightning rod. 

Henry, Patrick (1736-1799). — Orator and statesman of Virginia. 
Having tried farming and merchandising without success, he became a 
lawyer. His eloquence in the " Parsons Case " first made him prominent. 
Elected to the Virginia Assembly, he secured the passage of the famous 
resolution of resistance to the Stamp Act. As a member of the Conti- 
nental Congress he was recognized as the foremost orator in America. His 
eloquence secured the unanimous passage by the Virginia Convention of 
resolutions directing the Virginia delegates in Congress to move the inde- 
pendence of the colonies. He was repeatedly elected governor of Virginia. 
He opposed the ratification of the Constitution, declaring that that docu- 
ment *< squinted toward monarchy." He was offered the offices of United 



XXIV APPENDIX B. 

States Senator, Secretary of State under Washington, and Chief Justice of 
the Supreme Court, but the state of his health compelled him to decline 
them all. 

Lee, Richard Henry (1732-1794). — Statesman of Virginia. Member 
of the Colonial Assembly, his first speech was in opposition to the slave 
trade. He was active in opposition to the Stamp Act, and first proposed 
the intercolonial " Committees of Correspondence." Member of the Con- 
tinental Congress, he moved the Declaration of Independence. Called 
home by the illness of his wife, Jefferson was appointed in his place as 
chairman of the committee to draw up the Declaration. Lee, like Patrick 
Henry, opposed the ratification of the Constitution. He was chosen one 
of the first United States senators from Virginia, and proposed the Tenth 
Amendment to the Constitution. He was a cousin of General Henry Lee, 
father of the illustrious Robert E. Lee. 

Otis, James (1725-1783). — Statesman of Massachusetts, Advocate 
General of the Colony of Massachusetts, representative in the Colonial 
Assembly, delegate to the Stamp Act Congress. His fiery eloquence in 
behalf of the liberties of the colonies exerted a powerful influence. In 
1769 he was brutally assaulted by several British officers whom he had 
attacked in the Boston Gazette, receiving a sword cut in the head which 
impaired his reason, and from the effects of which he never recovered. His 
death resulted from a stroke of lightning. 

Sevier, John (1745-181 5). — Pioneer, born in Virginia; a noted 
Indian fighter in the Shenandoah Valley. He moved to Watauga, a set- 
tlement on the western slope of the Alleghanies. When the colony became 
a county of North Carolina, Sevier was elected to the legislature. He 
commanded the militia in many Indian fights, and with Colonel Shelby 
planned the battle of King's Mountain. For his part in this battle North 
Carolina presented him with a sword and pistol. He was governor of the 
short-lived state of Franklin, first congressman from the valley of the 
Mississippi, first governor of the state of Tennessee. 

Era of Union of the States, x 

Boone, Daniel (1735-1820). — Pioneer of Kentucky. Born in Penn- 
sylvania, reared in North Carolina. With his family and a few neighbors, 
in 1764 he crossed the mountains and entered what was then the unex- 
plored wilderness of Kentucky. He formed a settlement on the bank of 
the Kentucky River, and had many adventures and hairbreadth escapes 
from the Indians. After Kentucky's admission to the Union the courts 
decided Boone's title to his land invalid. He then removed to Missouri, 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. XXV 

where Congress made him a grant of 850 acres. In 1845 the legislature of 
Kentucky had the remains of Boone and his wife removed to Frankfort. 

Breckenridge, John 0.(1821-1875). — Statesman and soldier ; born 
in Kentucky ; served in the Mexican War ; member of the Kentucky 
legislature ; representative in Congress ; Vice-President under Buchanan ; 
candidate of the Southern Democrats for President, 1866 ; United States 
Senator from Kentucky from March, 1861, until he entered the Confeder- 
ate army, in which, as Major-General, he served with distinction. At the 
time of Lee's surrender he was Secretary of War of the Davis Cabinet. 

Calhoun, John C. (1782-1850). — Statesman, and the profoundest 
political thinker America has produced. Born in South Carolina in 1782 ; 
was graduated with honors at Yale; entered Congress in 181 1, and from that 
time until his death in 1850 was a leading figure in national politics. Was 
Secretary of War under Monroe ; Vice-President under John Q. Adams 
and first term of Jackson ; Senator from South Carolina ; Secretary of 
State during the latter part of Tyler's administration. In 1845 he returned 
to the Senate, where he remained until his death. Calhoun was the ablest 
expounder of the doctrine of State's Rights. Of stainless public and private 
life, loved by his friends, idolized by his state, his genius was admired and 
his character respected by all parties. 

Clay, Henry (1777-1852). — Statesman, born in Virginia. His father, 
a Baptist preacher, died when Henry was five years old ; at fourteen he 
became a copyist in a law office, and at twenty was licensed as a lawyer. 
He removed to Kentucky, where he at once rose to prominence. He was 
member of Congress from Kentucky ; Speaker of the House ; Secretary of 
State ; United States Senator, and leader of the Whig party. An elo- 
quent advocate of the compromises of 1820, of 1832, and of 1850, he was 
known as " The Great Pacificator." He was an unsuccessful candidate 
for the Presidency in 1828 and again in 1844. Clay was a man of winning 
manner, lofty patriotism, and incorruptible integrity. 

Douglas, Stephen A. (1813-1861). — Statesman, born in Vermont. 
His father died when Stephen was an infant. In boyhood he had to 
struggle for a living. He studied law and moved west, settling in Illinois. 
At twenty-one years of age he was elected Attorney-General of Illinois. 
After filling various state offices he became, in 1843, representative in Con- 
gress from Illinois, and in 1847 United States Senator, holding the last- 
named position in office until his death in 1861. He was candidate of the 
Northern Democrats for President in i860, and his popular vote was next 
to that of Lincoln. On the question of slavery he advocated the doctrine 
of squatter sovereignty. On account of his small physical frame and great 
mental power he was known as the " Little Giant." 



XXVI APPENDIX B. 

Houston, Sam (1793-1863). — Soldier and statesman, born in Rock- 
bridge County, Virginia. In his boyhood his widowed mother with her 
family moved to Tennessee. Sam received but little education and spent 
much of his time with the Indians. Enlisting in the army, he attracted the 
notice of General Jackson in the battle of Horseshoe Bend. He began the 
practice of law in Nashville ; served two terms in Congress ; was elected 
governor of Tennessee. During his term as governor he suddenly aban- 
doned his office and left the state without a word of explanation. For three 
years he made his home with the Indians west of the Mississippi. In 1833 
he came to Texas and entered into the struggle for independence from 
Mexico. He became the Commander-in-Chief of the Texan forces and won 
the victory at San Jacinto, which closed the war. He was twice President 
of the Republic of Texas, and after annexation was United States Senator. 
When Texas seceded, Houston was governor of the state. Refusing to 
take the oath of allegiance to the Confederacy, he was deposed. He died 
at his home in Huntsville, Texas, in 1863. 

Maury, Matthew F. (1806-1873). — Scientist, born in Virginia. En- 
joying slight educational advantages in youth, Maury was through life a 
diligent student. At nineteen years of age he was appointed midshipman in 
the United States navy. In 1834 he published his first work, " Maury's Nav- 
igation," which was adopted as a text-book in the navy. In 1837 he met 
with an accident, which lamed him for life. His essays on improvements 
in the navy, pubUshed soon afterw^ard, led to the foundation of the United 
States Naval Academy. In 1844 he became Superintendent of the United 
States Naval Observatory. While in this position he prepared his charts 
of the winds and ocean currents, which proved of world-wide benefit. His 
" Physical Geography of the Sea " was translated into many foreign lan- 
guages. Humboldt declared Maury the founder of a new science, and the 
leading governments of the world showered honors upon him. He insti- 
tuted the system of deep sea soundings, and his discoveries led to the lay- 
ing of the Atlantic cable. When Virginia seceded, Maury resigned from 
the United States navy and offered his services to his state, declining offers 
from the governments of Russia and France. He estabUshed the Confed- 
erate submarine battery service, and was sent to Europe to continue his 
experiments and to fit out armed cruisers. At the close of the war Maury 
went to Mexico, and was given a place in Maximilian's cabinet. The 
Emperor of France offered him the Superintendency of the Imperial Ob- 
servatory at Paris, but he finally accepted the Chair of Physics in the 
Virginia MiUtary Institute. 

Webster, Daniel (1782-1852). — Statesman, born in New Hampshire. 
When a boy he had only a few months' schooling, and was so shy that he 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. XXVll 

found it impossible to " speak pieces " before his sclioolmates. His fond- 
ness for books led his father, though a poor man with a large family, to 
send him to college. Entering upon the practice of law, he moved to Bos- 
ton, and was recognized as one of the foremost lawyers of the country. In 
1823 Webster was sent to Congress from Massachusetts and in 1826 was 
sent to the United States Senate. He was Secretary of State under Har- 
rison and Tyler and again under Filmore. Possessing a master mind, a 
splendid physical presence, and a rich, powerful voice, his speeches swayed 
readers as well as hearers, and rank him among the world's great orators. 



Era of War between the States. 

Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant. — General C. S. A. Of 
French extraction, Beauregard was born in Louisiana, 1818. He was a 
graduate of West Point, soldier in the Mexican War, supervising engineer 
of fortifications on Gulf coast, and at outbreak of war in 1861 superintend- 
ent of the Military Academy at West Point. Resigning his commission, he 
entered the Confederacy and directed the reduction of Fort Sumter. His 
most important services were rendered at First Manassas, at Shiloh, and in 
the operations around Richmond. He surrendered with General Johnston's 
army. 

Benjamin, Judah P. — Statesman. His parents were English Jews, 
who on their way from England to America landed at St. Croix, West 
Indies, where in 1811 Judah Benjamin was born. His boyhood was spent 
in North Carolina. He was educated at Yale, studied law at New Orleans, 
and became the head of the Louisiana bar. He was Whig United States 
Senator from 1853 until the secession of his state in 1861. He entered 
President Davis's Cabinet, serving in turn as Attorney-General, Secretary 
of War, and Secretary of State. On the fall of the Confederacy he 
escaped to England, where he soon attained preeminence at the bar, and 
was made Queen's Counsel. Benjamin was a man of prodigious applica- 
tion, profound mental grasp, and unquestioned integrity. 

Burnside, Ambrose E. (Indiana, 1824). — Major-General U. S. A. 
Bom of poor parents, he was apprenticed to a tailor ; his interest in military 
history attracted the notice of the congressman from his district, who pro- 
cured him an appointment to West Point, where he was a schoolmate of 
McClellan and Stonewall Jackson. He entered the war as colonel of a 
Rhode Island regiment. He was made major-general and placed in 
command of the Army of the Potomac. Defeated at Fredericksburg, he 
was superseded by Hooker. Later he conducted Union operations in East 



XXVlll APPENDIX B. 

Tennessee, and was with Grant's army before Petersburg. After the war 
he was governor of Rhode Island for several terms, and twice United 
States Senator. 

Farragut, David G. — United States naval officer. Born in Tennes- 
see in 1801. He was adopted in boyhood by Commodore Porter of the 
Essex, a warm friend of his father. At the age of eleven he served on 
the Essex in the battle with the British Phcebe. He married in Norfolk, 
Virginia, and his home, so far as he had a home on shore, was in that 
city. At the outbreak of the war between the states, he tendered his 
allegiance to the Federal government. He commanded the naval forces 
that effected the capture of New Orleans. At Mobile he had himself 
lashed to the mast of his flagship in order that he might direct the fight 
from above the smoke of battle At the close of the war the rank of 
admiral was created and conferred on Farragut as a mark of distinguished 
honor. Farragut was the most distinguished naval officer in the Union 
service, and was a man of rugged honesty and great ability. 

Forrest, Nathan B. (Tennessee, 1821). — Lieut.-General C. S. A., 
and one of the most successful cavalry leaders the war produced. Left 
fatherless at sixteen years of age, with his mother and a large family to 
support on a rented farm, before the outbreak of the war he had become 
the prosperous owner of a rich plantation. In 1841, when Texas was 
threatened with invasion from Mexico, Forrest joined a company of vol- 
unteers and marched to the relief of the young republic. The threatened 
danger was over before the arrival of his company at their destination, 
and Forrest, finding himself in Texas without means, went to work at 
splitting rails, and thus was enabled to defray his expenses home. At the 
beginning of hostilities, in 1861, he raised and equipped a regiment of cav- 
alry, of which he was made lieutenant-colonel. He was stationed at Fort 
Donelson, and when the surrender of that place was decided upon, he and 
his men, refusing to be included in the surrender, marched out and escaped. 
In 1862, at the head of a brigade in East Tennessee he captured the 
Federal General Crittendon with 1700 men and large supplies. The next 
year by a successful stratagem he compelled Colonel Streight to surrender 
a force three times as large as his own. His defeat of Gen. W. S. Smith 
at Okalona, Miss., in 1864 put a stop to General Sherman's advance upon 
Mobile. His raid into Kentucky and his capture of Fort Pillow on his 
return were daring and successful feats. At Tishmingo Creek, Miss., 
Forrest gained one of the most brilliant victories of the war, — with 3200 
cavalry routing a force of 3300 cavalry and 5400 infantry. Always in the 
front in battle, Forrest was brought into many personal conflicts. Gen. 
Dick Taylor said of him, " I doubt if any commander since the days of 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. XXIX 

the lion-hearted Richard has killed so many enemies with his own hand 
as Forrest." Absolutely devoid of military training, and with no educa- 
tional advantages, Forrest's uniform success in the face of overwhelming 
odds is without a parallel in miUtary history. 

Gordon, John B. (Georgia, 1832). — Lieutenant-General C. S. A. He 
was graduated at the University of Georgia, entered the Confederate army 
as captain, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-general. He served with 
distinction in the great battles of the Army of Northern Virginia, and was 
wounded eight times during the war. At Appomattox Gordon commanded 
one wing of Lee's army. Since the war he has been United States Sen- 
ator from Georgia and governor of the state. He has been repeatedly 
chosen commander of the United Confederate Veterans. An eloquent 
speaker, his addresses on scenes and events of the war have met a warm 
reception North and South, and have done much to efface the bitterness 
between the sections. 

Greeley, Horace. — Journalist; born in New Hampshire in 181 1. 
In boyhood his father apprenticed him to a printer. Having learned his 
trade, he set out for New York, where he arrived with but ten dollars and 
a small bundle of clothing. In 1 841 he founded the New York Tribune, 
which he continued to edit until his death, and which became the most 
influential paper in America. In politics the Tribune was at first Whig, 
then Anti-slavery Whig, then Republican. After the war Greeley advocated 
a liberal policy toward the people of the South, and became one of the 
bondsmen of Jefferson Davis. In 1872 he was presidential candidate of 
the Liberal Republican and Democratic parties. Disappointment over his 
defeat unsettled his mind and led to his death before the close of the year. 
Greeley was a man of eccentric habits, decided convictions, open-hearted 
disposition, and honest character. 

Hancock, Winfield S. (1824). — Major-General U.S.A. A native 
of Pennsylvania, he graduated at United States Military Academy, and was 
promoted for gallantry in Mexican War. He was made brigadier-general 
of volunteers in 1861, and joined the Army of the Potomac. He served 
under McClellan in the peninsular campaign and at Sharpsburg, fought at 
Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, was wounded at Gettysburg, and was 
prominent in the battles of Grant's campaign against Richmond. In the 
reconstruction period Hancock was placed in command of the military 
district including Texas and Louisiana; at that time he issued his famous 
"General Order No. 40," forbidding the military to interfere in civil affairs. 
His lenient policy was distasteful to Congress and he was displaced, but it 
endeared him to the South. In 1880 he was the Democratic candidate for 
President. Grant said of him: "Hancock stands the most conspicuous 



XXX APPENDIX B. 

figure of all the general officers who did not exercise a separate command. 
His name was never mentioned as having committed in battle a blunder 
for which he was responsible." 

Hood, John B. — General C. S. A. Born in Kentucky in 1831. Gradu- 
ating at West Point, he served in 1857 against the Indians in the Texas 
frontier, and was severely wounded in a hand-to-hand fight with a savage. 
Entering the Confederate service as captain, his gallantry secured him 
rapid promotion. He commanded a brigade of Texas troops in the Vir- 
ginia campaigns, and " Hood's Texas Brigade " became famous for its 
splendid fighting qualities. As major-general he commanded a division at 
Gettysburg. Transferred to the West and placed in command of the army 
opposing Sherman, his subsequent career is part of the history of the war. 
He died of yellow fever in New Orleans in 1879. Impetuous courage was 
General Hood's prominent characteristic. 

Jackson, Thomas J. ("Stonewall"). — Lieutenant-General C. S. A. 
Born in Clarksburg, Western Virginia, in 1824, Jackson was left an 
orphan at seven years of age, and was reared by his uncle. He secured 
an appointment to a cadetship at West Point, where his indomitable will 
and unswerving devotion to duty enabled him to overcome the deficien- 
cies of his early education. He graduated seventeenth in a class of 
over seventy, and such had been his remarkable progress that his class- 
mates used to say, " If we had to stay here another year, old Jack 
would be at the head of the class." On his graduation in 1846 Jackson 
was ordered to Mexico, where he served with distinction under General 
Scott. He resigned from the army in 18 51 to become Professor of Nat- 
ural Philosophy and Military Tactics in the Virginia Military Institute. 
When Virginia seceded, he at once offered his services to his native state. 
As an officer in the Confederate army his brilliant achievements thrilled 
the civilized world-with wonder at his genius. Absolute secrecy and light- 
ning rapidity marked Jackson's movements in war. Implicit faith in God 
was a prominent trait in his character, fearless devotion to duty a control- 
ling force in his life. Stern and inflexible in his military discipline, awkward 
and constrained in society, in his home life he was as gentle and tender as 
a woman. " Jackson died before reaching the age of forty, and had but 
two years in which to display the great faculties which rendered his name 
and fame immortal. Few human beings equaled him in the great art of 
making war — fewer still in purity of heart and life." 

Johnston, Albert Sidney. — General C. S. A. Born in Kentucky in 
1803; graduated at West Point; served in the Black Hawk War. In 
August, 1836, Johnston joined the Texas patriots, and became Commander- 
in-Chief of the Texan army. Under President Lamar he was made Secre- 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. XXXI 

tary of War of the Texas Republic. At the outbreak of the Mexican War 
he joined the army of General Taylor, who pronounced him the best sol- 
dier he ever commanded. At close of Mexican War he retired to his plan- 
tation in Brazoria County, Texas. Reentering the army, he was in com- 
mand of Department of Texas when, in 1857, he was ordered to restore 
order among the Mormons of Utah. The news of the secession of Texas, 
his adopted state, reached him while he was stationed in California. He 
at once resigned his command and hastened to Richmond. President 
Davis placed him in command of the troops in the West. With inade- 
quate forces and equipment he held the Union armies in check until Jan- 
uary, 1862. The ablest Confederate general in the West, Johnston's death 
at Shiloh was an irreparable loss to the Southern cause. 

Johnston, Joseph E. — General C. S. A. Born in Virginia, 1807; 
graduated at West Point; served in Black Hawk War and against the 
Florida Indians. In the Mexican War he was twice wounded and was 
promoted for gallant conduct. At the outbreak of the war between the 
states he was quartermaster-general of the United States army. Resign- 
ing his commission, he entered the Confederate service, and with General 
Lee organized the forces pouring into Richmond. His services during the 
war are a part of the history of that struggle. Johnston possessed great 
genius as a tactician. 

Lee, Stephen D. — Lieutenant-General C. S. A. Born in South Caro- 
lina in 1833; graduated from West Point. Resigned from United States 
army and became aide-de-camp to Beauregard at fall of Fort Sumter ; was 
with Johnston in the peninsular campaign and rendered conspicuous ser- 
vice in General Lee's army until in November, 1862, ordered to defense 
of Vicksburg. Here he commanded in the important engagements of 
Chickasaw, Bayou, and Champion Hills. After the surrender at Vicks- 
burg he was exchanged and given a cavalry command in Mississippi. 
Later, as lieutenant-general, he participated in the important battles in 
Georgia, Tennessee, and North Carolina, surrendering with Johnston's 
command. General Lee is now president of Mississippi Agricultural and 
Mechanical College. 

Magruder, John B. — Major-General C. S. A. Born in Virginia, 1810 ; 
graduated at West Point ; was promoted for gallantry in the Mexican War. 
When Virginia seceded he resigned from the United States army and en- 
tered the Confederate service. Placed in command of the troops guarding 
the mouth of the James River, he gained the battle of Big Bethel, and 
rendered efficient service in the subsequent peninsular campaign. In 1862 
he was placed in command of Department of Texas, where he remained 
until close of hostilities. His recapture of Galveston was one of the bril- 



XXXll APPENDIX B. 

liant actions of the war. After the surrender he served in the army of 
Maximilian in Mexico. Returning to the United States, he lectured on 
Mexico, and in 1869 settled in Houston, Texas, where he resided until his 
death in 187 1. 

McClellan, George B. — Major-General U. S. A. Born in Phila- 
delphia in 1826; graduated with honor at West Point ; was promoted for 
gallant conduct in the Mexican War ; appointed by the United States gov- 
ernment to visit the seat of the Crimean War, he published on his return 
his official report on the "Organization of European Armies and Opera- 
tions in the Crimea." At the beginning of the war between the states 
McCloUan commanded the Union forces in Western Virginia. His success 
here led to his appointment as commander of the Army of the Potomac, 
but dissatisfaction with his dilatory movements led to his removal after the 
battle of Sharpsburg. He took no further part in the war. McClellan 
was a splendid organizer and an able general. In 1864 he was the Demo- 
cratic nominee for President. After the war he was governor of New 
Jersey. 

Reagan, John H. — Statesman. Born in Tennessee in 1818, Reagan's 
boyhood was a struggle with poverty. By indomitable pluck and deter- 
mination he secured an education, and at the age of twenty-one came to 
Texas. After serving against the Indians he studied law, and at thirty 
was admitted to practice. He held several state offices and was then 
elected to Congress, where he served from 1856 to 1861. Returning home, 
he was chosen successively delegate to the Secession Convention of Texas 
and member of provisional Confederate Congress. On the selection of 
Davis's Cabinet, Reagan w^as appointed postmaster-general. After the 
fall of the Confederacy he was captured with President Davis and was 
imprisoned. In 1874 he was again elected to Congress, serving continu- 
ously until 1887, when he was sent to the United States Senate. In 1891 
Judge Reagan resigned from the Senate to accept the chairmanship of the 
Railroad Commission of Texas. Of vigorous mind, incorruptible honesty, 
and lofty patriotism, he is affectionately termed the " old Roman." 

RosECRANS, W. S. — Major-General U.S.A. Born in Ohio, 1819; 
graduated at West Point ; for a time professor in the Military Academy. 
Entering the Union army in 186 1, he gained his first successes under 
McClellan in West Virginia. He commanded the Federal forces at luka 
and Corinth, and, succeeding Buell, fought the battle of Murfreesboro and 
was defeated at Chickamauga. Transferred to Missouri, he served in that 
state against General Price. After the war he was at different times 
minister to Mexico, Democratic Congressman from California, and Regis- 
trar of the United States Treasury. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. XXXIU 

Semmes, Raphael. — Confederate States naval officer. Born in Mary- 
land, 1809, he entered the United States army at seventeen years of age. 
In 1842 he removed to Alabama. In the Mexican War he served as naval 
officer in the Gulf Squadron. On the secession of Alabama he resigned 
his commission in the United States navy and offered his services to Presi- 
dent Davis. His exploits as commander of the Sumter and the Alabama 
gained him world-wide renown. After his escape from the sinking Alabama, 
he returned to the Confederate capital by way of Mexico and Texas, and 
was given command of the James River Squadron defending Richmond. 
He surrendered with General J. E. Johnston's troops. Entering upon the 
practice of law at Mobile, he was arrested and imprisoned by orders of the 
Federal government. Later he became successively editor of a daily paper 
at Mobile and professor in Louisiana Military Institute. He was practic- 
ing law at Mobile at the time of his death in 1877. 

Sherman, William Tecumseh. — Lieutenant-General U. S. A. Born 
in Ohio in 1820. On the death of his father, when William was nine years 
of age, he was adopted by Hon. Thomas Ewing. He graduated at West 
Point, served against the Seminoles, and during the Mexican War was 
stationed on the Pacific coast, taking no active part in the contest. In 
1853 he resigned from the army and engaged in banking in San Francisco. 
In 1860-61 Sherman was superintendent of the Louisiana Military Acad- 
emy at Alexandria, but on the secession of Louisiana he resigned his place 
and entered the Union army. He commanded a division at First Manassas, 
and after that battle was transferred to the West, serving under Grant in 
the Vicksburg campaign and at Chattanooga. Later he commanded the 
Union army in the march through Georgia. 

Smith, E. Kirby. — General C. S. A. Born in Florida, 1824; gradu- 
ated at West Point; was promoted for gallantry in the Mexican War. In 
1859 he led a cavalry force against the Comanche Indians in Texas, and 
for his services received the thanks of the Texas legislature. On the 
secession of Florida he joined the Confederate army, and was severely 
wounded at Manassas. In 1862 he conducted operations in Tennessee 
and Kentucky, and in 1863 was placed in command of the Trans-Missis- 
sippi Department, including Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. He estab- 
lished furnaces and powder-mills, and by running the blockade at Galveston 
sent large quantities of cotton to Confederate agents abroad, making his 
department self-sustaining. His troops were the last to surrender. 

Stuart, J. E. B. — Major-General of cavalry. Born in Virginia, 1833, 
graduated at West Point, served against the Apache Indians in Texas in 
1854, and aided in quelling the Kansas troubles in 1856. Entering the 
Confederate service, he served with distinction as Lee's trusted cavalry 



XXXIV APPENDIX B. 

leader in all campaigns of the Army of Northern Virginia until his death at 
Yellow Tavern before Richmond. He twice performed the daring feat of 
making a complete circuit of the Union army. At Chancellorsville he 
succeeded to Stonewall Jackson's command after the fall of that officer. 
Absolutely fearless, of a gay and joyous disposition, pure in speech and 
temperate in habits, Stuart was an ideal Christian soldier. The war 
produced no finer cavalry officer. 

Taylor, Richard. — Lieutenant-General C. S. A., only son of Presi- 
dent Zachary Taylor. He was born in New Orleans in 1826, spent four 
years of his youth studying in Europe, was graduated at Yale College, and 
joined his father in the Mexican War. He was residing on a sugar planta- 
tion in Louisiana when the late war began. Joining the Confederate army, 
he served as brigadier-general under Stonewall Jackson until, in 1862, he 
was assigned to the command of Louisiana, where he succeeded in recover- 
ing the state for a time from the Union forces. His defeat of Banks at 
Mansfield crushed that general's expedition. He surrendered to General 
Canby on May 8, 1865. 

Thomas, George H. — Major-General U. S. A. Born in Virginia in 
181 6 and graduated at West Point in 1840. He served with distinction 
against the Seminoles and in the Mexican War. From 1856 to 1861 
Thomas was stationed in Texas as major of a regiment of which Albert 
Sidney Johnston was colonel, Robert E. Lee lieutenant-colonel, and 
W. J. Hardee major. In the war between the states Thomas entered 
the Federal service. His career in the Tennessee campaigns from Mill 
Spring to Chickamauga and Nashville proved him to be one of the ablest 
generals on the Union side. His modesty was equal to his ability. In 
1862 he declined to be promoted over Buell, and in 1868 he refused the 
rank of lieutenant-general on the ground that he had done nothing since 
the war to deserve promotion. 

Toombs, Robert. — Statesman and soldier. Born in Georgia in 1810, 
he became one of the most distinguished lawyers of his state. He served 
in the Creek War, was a member of the legislature, representative in Con- 
gress from 1845 to 1853, and United States Senator from 1853 to 1861. 
An able debater, he was a powerful champion of the cause of the South 
and an earnest advocate of secession. Under the Confederacy he was 
at different times congressman, secretary of state, and brigadier-general. 
After the war he persistently refused to take the oath of allegiance to the 
United States government, and died a disfranchised citizen. 

Van Dorn, Earl. — Major-General C. S. A. Born in Mississippi in 
1820; graduated at West Point; was several times promoted for gallant 
conduct in Mexican War; served in Seminole War; and led a force against 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. XXXV 

the Comanche Indians of Texas, and was dangerously wounded by arrows 
of the savages. In this campaign L. S. Ross, of Texas, the " boy captain," 
won his spurs. In the Confederate service Van Dorn was appointed colonel 
of cavalry, and at the head of a body of Texan volunteers captured the 
steamer Star of the West at Indianola, Texas, and compelled the Federal 
forces of Sibley and Reeves to surrender. He fought at Pea Ridge, Ark., 
Holly Springs, Miss., and Franklin, Tenn. In 1863 he was shot by a 
physician on account of a personal grievance. 



APPENDIX C. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Preamble. 



We, the people of the United States,^ in order to form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquilHty, provide 
for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the 
blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 



ARTICLE I. — LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
Section i. — Congress. 

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress 
of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of 
Representatives. 

1 As originally adopted by the convention, this clause began with the words, "We, 
the people of the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island . . . ," 
etc., naming each of the thirteen. But as it was agreed that only 7tine states ratifying 
should be sufificient to establish the Constitution between themselves, and as it was 
impossible to foretell which states would compose the number ratifying, the language 
of the preamble was changed to a general term to include the people of such states as 
should favor the new government. 

The Articles of Confederation were established by the states, acting in most 
instances through their Legislatures ; the Constitution was established by the states, 
acting in all cases through conventions of their people. 



APPENDIX C. XXXVll 



Section 2. — House of Representatives. 

The House of Representatives shall be composed of members 
chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and 
Election of *^^ electors ^ in each State shall have the qualifications 
Members. requisite for electors 1 of the most numerous branch of 
the State Legislature. 

No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to 
the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a 

Qualifications. .. . . ^. . . ^ ,, ,,, , 

citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when 
elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several States which may be included within this Union, according 

to their respective numbers,^ which shall be determined 

Apportionment., , ,. 111 1 r r . , , 

by adding to the whole number of free persons, including 
those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not 
taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.^ The actual enumeration shall 
be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of 
the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in 
such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of represen- 
tatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State 
shall have at least one representative : and until such enumeration 
shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to 
choose three ; Massachusetts, eight ; Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations, one ; Connecticut, five ; New York, six ; New Jersey, 
four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one ; Maryland, six ; Virginia, 
ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carohna, five ; and Georgia, three. 
When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the 
executive authority^ thereof shall issue writs of election 

Vacancies. ^,1 , 

to fill such vacancies. 

1 " Electors," meaning voters. Persons whom a state permits to vote for repre- 
sentatives in the lower House of its Legislature are here given the right to vote for 
representatives in Congress. 

2 At present (1895) there is one representative for every 173,901 persons. 

8 " Persons " here means slaves. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments 
annul this provision. 
♦ Governor. 



XXXViii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and 
Officers other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeach- 

Impeachment. ment 



Section 3. — Senate. 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators 
Number from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 

of Senators : » 7 te 

Election. six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the 

first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 

classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall 

Classification. , , , .... , . , 

be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the 
second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; of the third class, 
at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen 
every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or other- 
wise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive* 
thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of 
the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the 
age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an 
inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the 
President of Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally 
Senate. divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president 
pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or 
when he shall exercise the office of President of the 
United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments : 
When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
Trials of When the President of the United States is tried, the 

Impeachment. Chief-Justice shall preside : and no person shall be con- 
victed without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 

4 Governor. 



APPENDIX C. XXXIX 

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any 

office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; 
in"ciTe^of but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and 

subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, 
according to law. 



Section 4. — Both Houses. 

The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators 

and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by 

Electing the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any 

em ers. time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as 

to the places of choosing senators. ^ 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
Meetings of meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless 
Congress. ^j^gy q]^2l\\ by law appoint a different day. 



Section 5. — The Houses Separately. 

Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifi- 
cations of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute 
a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may 

Organization. ,. . , , , , , . , 

adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to com- 
pel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under 
such penalties, as each house may provide. 

Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 

members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concur- 

Rules. 1.1 

rence of two-thirds, expel a member. 
Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time 
to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judg- 
ment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the 

Journal. i r • , i . , ,. 

members of either house on any question shall, at the 
desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

1 Otherwise, Congress would have power to fix the places of meeting of state legis- 
latures. 



Xl CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 
consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days. 

Adjournment , , , ,.,.,, 

nor to any other place than that in which the two houses 
shall be sitting. 



Section 6. — Privileges and Disabilities of Members. 

The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation ^ for 

their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury 

of the United States. They shall in all cases, except 

Privileges of treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged 

Members. . , . , . , , 

from arrest during their attendance at the session of 
their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; 
and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be ques- 
tioned in any other place. 

No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of 
Prohibitions ^^^ United States, which shall have been created, or the 
on Members, emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during 
such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States, 
shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. 



Section 7. — Method of Passing Laws. 

All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Repre- 
Revenue sentatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with 

^^'^^- amendments as on other bills. 

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 

and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the 

President of the United States ; if he approve, he shall 

become sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections. 

Laws. , 

to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall 
enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to recon- 
sider it. If after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall 

1 J?5ooo a year, and twenty cents for every mile traveled bj' direct route to and 
from the capital. 



APPENDIX C. xli 

agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to 
the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if 
approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in 
all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas 
and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the 
bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any 
bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays 
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be 
a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by 
their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be 
a law. 

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
Resolutions question of adjournment) shall be presented to the Presi- 
^'^- dent of the United States ; and before the same shall 

take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, 
shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the 
case of a bill. 



Section 8. — Powers Granted to Congress. 

The Congress shall have power: 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the 
Powers of debts and provide for the common defense and general 
Congress. welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and 

excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian tribes; 

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, ^ and uniform laws 
on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

1 The legal process by which a foreigner becomes entitled to the rights and privi- 
leges of a citizen of the United States. 



xlii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States ; 

To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for 
limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their 
respective writings and discoveries ; ^ 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal,^ and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water ; 

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to 
that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

To provide and maintain a navy ; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions. 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of 
the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appoint- 
ment of the officers, and the authority of training the mihtia according 
to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of partic- 
ular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the 
government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over 
all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, 
dockyards, and other needful buildings ; — And 

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
Implied ^^^^ execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 

Powers. vested by this Constitution in the government of the 

United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

^ Authors secure " copyrights " on their writings ; inventors, " patents " on their 
inventions. 

2 Letters granted by the government to private citizens in time of war, authorizing 
them, under certain conditions, to capture the enemy's ships. 



APPENDIX c. xliii 



Section 9. — Powers Forbidden to the United States. 

The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States 
now existing: shall think proper to admit, shall not be 

Absolute , , , , ^ . , , , 

Prohibitions prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be im- 
posed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person.^ 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus ^ shall not be suspended, 
unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
require it. 

No bill of attainder 3 or ex-post-facto law^ shall be passed. 

No capitation^ or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall 
vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
duties in another. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of 
appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of 
the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published 
from time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no 
person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without 
the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, 
or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

1" Persons" meaning slaves, in 1808 Congress prohibited the importation of 
slaves. 

2 An official document requiring an accused person who has been imprisoned 
awaiting trial to be brought before a judge to inquire whether he may be legally held. 

3 An act of a legislative body inflicting the death penalty without trial. 

4 A law relating to the punishment of acts committed before the law was passed. 
6 Capitation tax, poll tax. 



xliv CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Section io. — Powers Forbidden to the States. 

No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation ; 

grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit 

Prohibitions bills of Credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a 

on the States. ,. rii i-nr • ■> 

tender m payment of debts ; pass any bill of attamder, 
ex-post-facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or 
grant any title of nobility. 

No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts 
or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely neces- 
sary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net prod- 
Conditional -^ or r 
Prohibitions ucc of all dutics and imposts, laid by any State on imports 

on the States. i n i r i r , r ^ 

or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the 
United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and 
control of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of 
tonnage, keep troops, or ships-of-war, in time of peace, enter into 
any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign 
power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent 
danger as will not admit of delay. 



ARTICLE II. — EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
Section t. — President and Vice-President. 

The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United 
States of America. He shall hold his office during the 
term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, 
chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows : 

Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of 
senators and representatives to which the State may be 
entitled in the Congress : but no senator or represen- 
tative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United 
States, shall be appointed an elector. 



APPENDIX C. 



xlv 



[1 The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 

ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant 

of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all 

the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which 

list they shall sis^n and certify and transmit sealed to the 

Proceedings of 

Electors and seat of the government of the United States, directed to 
the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate 
shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The 
person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if 
such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an 
equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall 
immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no 
person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said 
house shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing 
the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation 
from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall 
consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a 
majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every 
case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest 
number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if 
there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate 
shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] 

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
Time of the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day 

Electors. shall be the same throughout the United States.^ 

No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
Qualifications States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, 
of President, gj^^j^ j^g cHgible to the ofiicc of President ; neither 
shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have 

1 This paragraph in brackets has been superseded by the Twelfth Amendment. 

2 The electors are chosen on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November, 
next before the expiration of a presidential term. They vote (by Act of Congress of 
Feb. 3, 1887) on the second Monday in January following, for President and Vice-. 
President. The votes are counted, and declared in Congress on the second Wednes- 
day of the next February. 



xlvi CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years 

resident within the United States. 

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 

resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the 
said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, 
and the Congress may by law provide for the case of 

removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and 

Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President ; 

and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, 

or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation 1 which shall neither be increased nor diminished during 
the period for which he shall have been elected, and he 
shall not receive within that period any other emolument 

from the United States, or any of them. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 

following oath or affirmation : — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) 
that I will faithfully execute the office of President of 
the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, 

preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." 



Section 2. — Powers of the President. 

The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy 

of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when 

called into the actual service of the United States ; he 
^i^'t^T , , . . . . . , , ... 

Powers, may require the opmion, m writmg, of the prmcipal 

Reprieves officcr In cach of the executive departments, upon any 
an ar ons. gui^jg^^^ relating to the duties of their respective offices ; 
and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses 
against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present 
concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the 
advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint ambassa- 
dors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, 

1 The President now receives ^50,000 a year; the Vice-President, j58ooo. 



APPENDIX C. ^^^^ 

and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are 
Appoint- ^^^ herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be 

ments. established by law : but the Congress may by law vest 

the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the 
President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 
The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
Pill happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting 

Vacancies. commissions whlch shall expire at the end of their next 
session. 



Section 3. — Duties of the President. 

He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the 
state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he 
may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, 
or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with 
respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such 
Convene ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ think proper ; he shall receive ambassa- 

Congress ^q^s and Other public ministers ; he shall take care that 

the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers 
of the United States. 



Section 4. — Impeachment. 

The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United 
Removal of States, shall be removed from office on impeachment 
Officers. fQj., and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high 

crimes and misdemeanors. 



xlviii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

ARTICLE III.— JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT, 

Section i. — United States Courts. 

The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one 
Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from 
time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of 
Established. the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices 
Ju ges. during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive 

for their services a compensation^ which shall not be diminished 
during their continuance in office. 

Section 2. — Jurisdiction of United States Courts. 

The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, 

arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and 

treaties made, or which shall be made, under their 

Federal 

Courts in authority ; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other 

General. , ,. . . , , ,, . . 

public mmisters, and consuls ; — to all cases of admiralty 
and maritime jurisdiction ; — to controversies to which the United 
States shall be a party ; — to controversies between two or more 
States ; — between a State and citizens of another State ; ^ — between 
citizens of different States ; — between citizens of the same State 
claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, 
or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- 
suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court 
Supreme sh^W have Original jurisdiction. In all other cases before 

Court. mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate juris- 

diction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such 
regulations as the Congress shall make. 

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 

jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes 

shall have been committed ; but when not committed 

within any State, the trial shall be at such place or 

places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

1 The chief justice ot the Supreme Court receives $10,500 a year, the associate 
justices, $10,000. 2 But compare Amendment XI. 



APPENDIX C. xlix 

Section 3 Treason. 

Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying 
Treason ^^^ against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving 

Defined. ^\^q^ ^id and comfort. 

No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony 
of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corrup- 

Punishment. . riii r r • i- ii-r^, 

tion of blood, or forfeiture, except durmg the life of the 
person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. — RELATIONS OF THE STATES TO 
EACH OTHER. 

Section i, — Official Acts. 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, 
records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the 
Congress may by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such 
acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Section 2. — Privileges of Citizens. 

The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and 
immunities of citizens in the several States. 

A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime., 
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on 
Fugitives demand of the executive authority of the State from 

from Justice, ^hich he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the 
State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person ^ held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or 
Fugitive regulation therein, be discharged from such service or 

Slaves. labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to 

whom such service or labor may be due. 

1 " Person " here includes s/ave. This was the basis of the Fugitive-Slave Law. It 
is now superseded by Amendment XIII. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Section 3. — New States and Territories. 

New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union 
but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of 
Admission ^^J Other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction 
of States. Qf tY^ro or more States, or parts of States, without the 

consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the 
Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 

rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 

and Property property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in 

this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice 

any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 



Section 4. — Protection of the States. 

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a 
republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against 
invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the Executive 
(when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. 



ARTICLE V. — AMENDMENTS. 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
Yi^^ application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several 

Proposed. States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, 

which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as 
part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three- 
fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths 
jj^^ thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may 

Ratified. \)q. proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amend- 

ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its con- 
sent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 



APPENDIX C. 



ARTICLE VI. — GENERAL PROVISIONS. 

All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the 
adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against 
the United States under this Constitution, as under the 
confederation. 

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall 
be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall 
Supremacy of ^^ niade, under the authority of the United States, shall 
Constitution. ]^q ^]^g supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every 
State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of 
any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the mem- 
bers of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial 
^^ . , , officers, both of the United States and of the several 

Official oath. 

States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support 
Religious test, ^j^.^ Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be 
required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the 
United States. 



ARTICLE VII. — RATIFICATION OF THE 
CONSTITUTION. 

The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be sufficient 
for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so rati- 
fying the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States 
present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of 
our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, 
and of the independence of the United States of America 
the twelfth. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
President^ and Deputy from Virginia. 



lii 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

John Langdon, 
Nicholas Oilman, 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Nathaniel Gorham, 
RuFus King. 

CONNECTICUT. 

William Samuel Johnson, 
Roger Sherman. 

NEW YORK. 

Alexander Hamilton. 

NEW JERSEY. 
William Livingston, 
David Brearlev, 
William Paterson, 
Jonathan Dayton. 



PENNSYLVANIA. 

Benjamin Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin, 
Robert Morris, 
George Clvmer, 

Thomas Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersoll, 
James Wilson, 
Gouverneur Morris. 

DELAWARE. 

George Read, 
Gunning Bedford, Jr., 
John Dickinson, 
Richard Bassett, 
Jacob Broom. 

MARYLAND. 

James M'Henrv, 
Daniel of St. Thomas 

Jenifer, 
Daniel Carroll. 



VIRGINIA. 

John Blair, 
James Madison, Jr. 



NORTH CAROLINA. 

William Blount, 
Richard Dobbs Spaight, 
Hugh Williamson. 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 

John Rutledge, 
Charles C. Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 



GEORGIA. 

William Few, 
Abraham Baldwin. 



Attest: WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary, 



AMENDMENTS. 



Article I.^ — Congress shall make no law respecting an estab- 
Religion, lishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise 

Assembly,'^^^^' thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the 
Petition. press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, 

and to petition the government for redress of grievances. 

Article II. — A well-regulated mihtia being necessary to the 
security of a free State the right of the people to keep and 
bear arms shall not be infringed. 
Article III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered 
in any house, without the consent of the owner ; nor in 
time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 



Militia. 



Soldiers. 



1 The first ten amendments were proposed by Congress in 1 789, and adopted in 
1 791. They are often called the Bill of Rights, and they are intended to guard more 
efficiently the rights of the people and of the states. See § 339. 



APPENDIX C. 



liii 



Article IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their 
persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches 
Unreasonable ^^'^ Seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall 
Searches. issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or 

affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and 
the persons or things to be seized. 

Article V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or 
otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or mdictment of a 
Criminal grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval 

Prosecutions, forccs, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of 
war and public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same 
offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be com- 
pelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be 
deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor 
shall private property be taken for public use, without just compen- 
sation. 

Article VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall 
enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of 
the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, 
which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to 
be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be con- 
fronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process 
for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of 
counsel for his defense. 

Article VII. — In suits at common law, where the value in con- 
troversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by 
Common jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall 

be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United 
States than according to the rules of common law. 

Article VIII. — Excessive bail shall not be required, nor exces- 
g^jj sive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments 

Punishments. inflicted. 

Article IX. — The enumeration in the Constitution of certain 
rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others 
Rights and retained by the people. 

Article X. — The powers not delegated to the United 
States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are 
reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. 



liv CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Article XI.^ — The judicial power of the United States shall not 

be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, corn- 
Judicial •' -^ j^ 
Power menced or prosecuted against any of the United States 

by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of 
any foreign state. 

Article XII. ^ — The electors shall meet in their respective States, 
and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at 
least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; 
they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and 
in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President ; and they 
shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of 
Method of ^ persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number 
Presidfnt and ^^ votcs for each, which list they shall sign and certify, 
Vice-President, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the 
United States, directed to the president of the Senate ; — the president 
of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of 
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then 
be counted ; — the person having the greatest number of votes for 
President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such 
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not 
exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. 
But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the 
representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this 
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President 
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act 
as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis- 
ability of the President. The person having the greatest number of 
votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no 
person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the 

1 Proposed in 1794 ; adopted 1798. 

2 Adopted 1804. 



APPENDIX C. 



Iv 



list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the 
purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, 
and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 
But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President 
shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

Article XIII.^ — Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary 
Slavery Servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the 

Abolished. party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within 
the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

Article XIV. ^ — Section i. All persons born or naturalized in 
the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens 
Negroes made ^^ ^^ United States and of the State wherein they reside. 
Citizens. jsJq gtate shall make or enforce any law which shall 

abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; 
nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, 
without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its juris- 
diction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole 
number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But 
when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for 
President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in 
Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members 
of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of 
such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United 
States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion 
or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in 
the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to 
the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such 
State. 

Section j. No person shall be a senator or representative in 
Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any 
office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, 
who having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as 

1 Adopted 1865. 2 Adopted 1868. 



Ivi CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legis- 
lature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support 
the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insur- 
rection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the 
enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each 
house, remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, 
shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State 
shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insur- 
rection or rebelHon against the United States, or any claim for the 
loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, 
and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Section j. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

Article XV. ^ — Section i. The rights of citizens of the United 
Negroes States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the 

Made Voters. United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, 
or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

1 Adopted 1870. 



INDEX. 



Abolition crusade, the, 288, 289. 

movement, 1837-40, 295, 343. 

Abolitionists, tenets of the, 289. 
Acadia, 114. 

Acadians, expulsion of the, 117. 
Adams, John, sketch of, 235. 

administration of, 235-240. 

Adams, John Quincy, election of, 271. 

administration, 272-277; sketch of, 

272, 278; policy, 274, 275. 

Aguinaldo, 479. 

Alabama, admission of, 266; ceded to the 
United States, 214. 

Alabavia, the Kearsarge and the, 400. 

Alabama claims, 425. 

Alamance, battle of, 160. 

Alamo (Ah'la-mo), massacre at, 303. 

Alaska, purchase of, 422; gold in, 485; 
boundary dispute, 4S5. 

Albany, N.Y., 47; settled, 100. 

Albemarle Sound, settlement at, 68. 

Aldrich, T. B., App., xiv. 

Algonquins (Al-gon'kin), the, 3. 

Alien and Sedition laws, 239. 

Allen, James Lane, App., xx. 

Altamaha River, 73. 

America, discovery of, 21 ; name of, 29, 48. 

four hundred years ago, i. 

America, North, physical features of, i, 2. 

Amerigo Vespucci (Ah-ma-re'go Ves-poot'- 
che), 29. 

Anarchist troubles in Chicago, 457. 

Anderson, Maj., at Fort Sumter, 357. 

Andersonville prison, 401. 

Andre (An'dray), Major, capture and execu- 
tion of, 199. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, government of, in 
Mass., 88; in Connecticut, 90, 91; gov- 
ernor of N,E., 96; deposed, 97; in N.Y., 
102. 

Annapolis convention, the, 218. 

Anti-Federalists, the, 227. 

Anti-slavery societies, 289. 

Antietam (An-tee'tam), battle of, 379, 380, 
381. 

Apaches (.4h-pah chay), the, 3. 

Appointments to office, 438. 

Appomattox Court-House, surrender of Lee 
at, 403, 404. 

Arkansas, admission of, 291. 

Arnold, Benedict, expedition to Canada, 
169; on Lake Champlain, 180; at Fort 
Stanwix, 181; at Saratoga, 182; treason 



Ivii 



of, 198, 199; raids Virginia, 202; destroys 

towns in Connecticut, 204. 
Arthur, Chester A'., nomination of, 437; life 

and services, 439, 440; administration of, 

440-444. 
Ashburton treaty, the, 299, 300. 
Ashe, Gen., 194. 
Ashley River, 70. 
Astoria, Oregon, 309. 
Atlanta, Ga., .Sherman's march on, 397; 

capture of, 398. 
Atlanta Exposition, the, 442, 457. 
Atlantic cable, the, 421. 
Augusta, capture of, 194. 
Austin, Moses, 302. 
Austin, Stephen F., 302. 
Aztecs, the, 2. 

Bacon, 65. 

Bacon's rebellion, 62. 

Baffin's Bay, discovery of, 43. 

Balboa discovers the Pacific, 31. 

Baltimore , the, 469. 

Baltimore, population in colonial times, 136. 

attack on, in 1814, 261 ; convention 

at, in 1860,335 \ riot, April 19, 1861,359. 

Baltimore, Lord, in Maryland, 65-68. 

Bancroft, George, App., xii. 

Banks, Gen., invades Texas, 389; defeated 
by Gen. Dick Taylor, 393. 

Barker, Wharton, 482. 

Bartholdi's (Bar-tohl'dy) statue of " Liberty," 
447- 

Bay Psalm Book, 129. 

" Bear Flag Revolutionists," 315. 

Beaumont, Texas, oil wells near, 486. 

Beauregard (Bo'-re-ga'd), Gen., at Charles- 
ton, 358; at Bull Run, 362; at Corinth, 
369; against Butler, 395; App., xxvii. 

Bee, Gen., 363, 364. 

Behring, Vitus, 422. 

Behring Sea arbitration, 456. 

Belknap, impeachment of, 429. 

Bell, John, nomination of, 335. 

Bemis Heights, 181. 

Benjamin, Judah P., 345; App., xxvii. 

Bennington, battle of, 181. 

Bentonville, battle of, 403. 

Berkeley, Gov., subdues Indians in Va., 
59; government of, in Va., 63; on free 
schools and the printing press, 140; App., 
xxi. 

Berkeley, Lord, grantee of New Jersey, 103. 



Iviii 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Bidwell, John, prohibition candidate, 454. 

Black Hawk War, 288, 318. 

Blackbeard, 64. 

Blaine, James G., nomination of, 443. 

Blair, Frank P., 423. 

Blair, Rev. James, 140. 

Blanc, General, 465. 

Bland Bill, the, 436, 450. 

Blockade of Southern States, 358, 361. 

Blockade runners, 365. 

Boco Chico (Chee'co), Texas, battle of, 405. 

Bon Homme Richard, the, 192, 193. 

Bonneville (Bon'vil), Capt., 310. 

Boone, Daniel, 230, 231; App., xxiv. 

Booth, John Wilkes, .404. 

Bostoft, the, 469. 

Boston, evacuation of, 169; founded, 85. 

Boston fire, the, 426. 

Boston Massacre, 159. 

"Boston News-Letter," 132. 

Boston Port Bill, 161, 162. 

Boundaries fixed by treaty of 1783, 212. 

Boundary dispute with Great Britain, 299,300. 

Boxer uprising, 480. 

Braddock's defeat, 116. 

Bradford, William, 83. 

Bragg, Gen., succeeds Beauregard, 370; in- 
vades Tennessee, 370; defeats Rosecrans, 
389; defeat of, at Lookout Mountain, 391. 

Brandywine, battle of the, 184. 

Breckinridge, John C., nomination of, 335; 
App., XXV. 

Breton Island, Cape, 36. 

Brewster, Elder William, 81. 

Briar Creek, Ga., battle of, 194. 

Brock, Gen., 253. 

Brooke, John M., 333, 374. 

Brooklyn, the, 467, 472. 

Brooklyn bridge, 442. 

Brown, John, raid of, 333, 336. 

Bryan, William J., 459, 468, 481, 482. 

Bryant, William Cullen, App., iii. 

Buchanan, James, sketch of, 328; administra- 
tion of, 328-349 ; attitude of, towards seces- 
sion, 337, 338. 

Buckner, Gen., 368, 459. 

Buena Vista, battle of, 313. 

Buffalo, Pan-American Exposition in, 482. 

Bull Run, battle of, 362-364; effect of, 364. 

second battle of, 379. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 167, 168. 

Burgoyne, Gen., campaign of, 180-183; sur- 
render of, 182, 183. 

Burnside, Gen., succeeds McClellan, 380; 
App., xxvii. 

Burr, Aaron, conspiracy of, 245. 

Butler, Gen. Benjamin P., at New Orleans, 
372; sent to James River, 394; operations 
on the James, 395 ; on employment of 
captured slaves, 380; nominated for the 
presidencv by Anti-Monopolists, 443. 

Butler, General M. C, 468. 

Cabeza de Vaca (Kah-bay'thah day Vah'kah), 

33- 
Cabinet, the first, 228, 229. 
Cable, George W., App., xx. 
Cabot, John, 23-25; voyage, 25. 



Cabot, Sebastian, 25, 26. 

Calhoun, John C, proposes tax on imports, 
285; on nullification, 286, 287; speech on 
compromise bill of 1850, 321 ; App., xxv. 

California, acquisition of, 314, 315. 

California question, 319. 

Calvert, Cecil, 65. 

George, 65. 

Cambridge, Mass., first printing in, 132. 

Camden, battle of, ig6, 197. 

Campbell, William, 198. 

Campos, General, 463. 

Canada Expedition, 169. 

Canada, invasion of, in 1812, 253; in 1813, 
255-258; in 1814, 259. 

Canals, activity in building, 273, 274. 

Canary Islands, 20. 

Cape Fear Settlement, 68. 

Capital, the national, 229; removal of, 236. 

Caravels, 20. 

Carolina, Huguenot settlements in, 37; char- 
ter of, 69; first proprietors of, 69; constitu- 
tion of, 6g; misrule in, 70; fall of proprie- 
tary government in, 70. 

" Carpet-baggers," the, 419; rule of the, 427. 

Carteret, Sir George, grantee of New Jersey, 
103. 

Cartier, Jacques (Zhack Kart-e-ay'), discov- 
ers the St. Lawrence, 37. 

Carver, Gov. John, 82, 83. 

Catholics in Georgia, 74; in Maryland, 65. 

Census, the eleventh, 454. 

Centennial Exposition, the, 430. 

Central America, ruins in, 2. 

Cerro (Thay'ro) Gordo, battle of, 313. 

Cervera (Thar-vay'rah), 471; his fleet de- 
stroyed, 476. 

Chad's Ford, 184. 

Champlain (Sham-plane'), 37. 

Champlain, Lake, battle of, 260. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 382-384. 

Charles the Second, 62. 

Charles IX of France, 37. 

Charleston, S.C., settlement, 71; character 
of first settlers, 71; relative size in 1763, 
125; principal town in the South, 136; 
attack on, in 1776, 171; capture of, 195. 

earthquake in 1886, 447. 

exposition in, 486. 

Charter Oak, the, 90. 

Chattanooga, Gen. Bragg at, 370; siege of, 
390. 

Cherry Valley Massacre, 188. 

Chesapeake, the, and the Shannon, 254, 255. 

Chesapeake Bay, the English in, 65; French 
fleet in, 204. 

Chicago, the, 452. 

Chicago fire, the, 426. 

Chicago strike, 1894, 457- 

Chicago, World's Fair in, 456, 457. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 389. 

Chickamauga Park, 458. 

Chili, trouble with, in i8gi, 451. 

Chinese immigration, 446. 

Chippewa, battle of, 259. 

Church customs in New England Colonies, 
129. 

Cincinnati, riot in, 1884, 443. 



INDEX. 



lix 



Cipango (Che-pan go), Island of, 25. 

Citizen, rights of the, under the Constitution, 
222. 

Civil Service under Jackson, 283. 

Civil Service Reform, 440, 441, 445. 

Clark, George Rogers, expedition of, to the 
Illinois country, 190, 191. 

Clay, Henry, 251; and the Missouri com- 
promise, 26S ; duel with Randolph, 275 ; 
supports national bank, 284, 299; tariff 
policy of, 286, 287; Whig leader, 292; his 
compromise bill, 320; App., xxv. 

Clayborne, William, 66, 67. 

Clermofit, the, 246. 

Cleveland, Grover, nomination of, 443; 
elected president, 444; administration of, 
444-449; defeat of, 448; reelected, 454; 
second administration, 455-459. 

Cliff-dwellers, the, 2. 

Clinton, Sir Henry, on the Carolina coast, 
170; supersedes Howe, 187; captures 
Charleston, 195. 

Coal strike, the, 484. 

Coal supply, the, 332. 

Cockburn, Admiral, 261. 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 395. 

Colfax, Schuyler (Sky-ler Cole-fax), nomi- 
nated for vice-president, 423. 

College of Pennsylvania, 144. 

Colonies, manners and customs, 124-148. 

Colonists, the first, 56. 

Colonization, English, 43-45. 

Colorado, admission of, 430. 

Columbia College, 144. 

Columbia, District of, selected as seat of 
government, 236 ; slavery in, 290. 

Columbia River explorations, 244, 308. 

Columbia, S. C, burning of, 402. 

Columbian Exposition, 456-457. 

Columbus, Christopher, 16-23 ; voyage, 20. 

Comanches, the, 3. 

Commercial difficulties under Madison, 249. 

Compromise of 1850, 320. 

Comstock silver mines, 332. 

Concord, Mass., battle of, 163-166. 

Confederacy, defensive points of the, 360. 

Confederate Constitution, 346, note. 

Confederate States, organization of the, 
344-346. 

Confederation, articles of, 211, 212, 217. 

Conger, Minister, 480. 

Congress, burning of the, 374. 

Congress, formation of, 220, 221. 

See, also. Continental Congress, 

Stamp Act Congress. 

Connecticut Colony, settlement of, 8g ; unites 
with New Haven Colony, go; charter, 90. 

Conscription Act, the, 391. 

Constitution, Federal, the, adoption of, 219; 
provisions of the, 220-222 ; Northern and 
Southern views of the, 340, 342 ; fourteenth 
amendment, 418 ; fifteenth amendment, 
425. 

Constitution of the U. S., text of the, App., 
xxxvi . 

Constitutiofi, the, and the Guerriere, 252. 

Constitutional Convention at Annapolis, 
218; at Philadelphia, 218, 219. 



" Constitutional Party," the, 334. 

Continental Congress, 162 ; second Con- 
gress, 168; powers of, 211. 

Continental Currency, 215, 216. 

" Contraband of War," 380. 

" Conway Cabal " (Ca-bal'), the, i86. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, App., ii. 

Corinth, battle of, 370. 

Cornwallis, Lord, 179, 184; in South Caro- 
lina, 196-198; retreats to Virginia, 202; 
surrender of, 205. 

Coronado (Co-ro-nah'do), 33. 

Corruption, official, 428. 

Cortez in Mexico, 33. 

Cotton gin, the, 233. 

Cotton industry, growth of, 234. 

" Courtesy of the Senate," 439. 

Cowpens, battle of the, 200, 201. 

Craddock, Chas. Egbert, App., xx. 

Crawford, F. Marion, App., xvi. 

Credit Mobilier (Mo-beel'yer), the, 428. 

Creek land troubles, 276, 277. 

Creek War, the, 259. 

Cristobal Colon, the, 476. 

" Crittenden Compromise," the, 338. 

Crogan, Capt., defends Fort Stephenson, 
256. 

Cromwell, "Lord Protector," 62. 

Crook, Gen., 394-395- 

Crown Point, 116. 

Cuba, Spanish misgovernment in, 462 ; 
revolution of 1895,463; sympathy with, 
464 ; independence of, recognized, 467 ; 
blockade of, 471 ; given up by Spain, 478 ; 
independent, 484 ; reciprocity treaty with, 

485- 
Cumberland Road, the, 269, 275, 276. 
Cumberland, sinking of the, 374. 
Currency, irregular standards in the various 

states, 216, 217. 

See Continental Currency. 

Custer, Gen., death of, 429. 
Czolgosz (Shawl-gotz'), Leon, 482. 

Da Gama (Dab Gah'mah), Vasco, 42. 

Daguerre (Dah-gair'), 296. 

Dakotahs, the, 3. 

Dark ages, the, i6. 

Dartmouth College founded, 132. 

Davenport, John, 90. 

Davis, Jefferson, in the compromise of 1850, 

321 ; elected president of the Confederacy, 

345 ; sketch, 346, 347 ; capture of, 405 ; 

trial, 420. 
Davis, John, 42. 
Dearborn, Gen., 255. 
Declaration of Independence, the, 172. 
Declaration of Rights, the, 158. 
De Grasse, Count, 203. 
Delaware, Swedes in, 48, 49: settlement, 

106 ; claim to, 106, 107 ; province, 107. 
De Long, Capt., polar expedition of, 440. 
Democratic party in i860, 334, 335. 
" Democratic simplicity," 242. 
Demonetization of silver, 429. 
De Monts (Da Mong') founds Port Royal, 

De Soto, Ferdinand, 32, 33. 



Ix 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Detroit, surrender of, 251. 

Dingley Bill, 461. 

Dollar, silver, 216, 429. 

Donelly, Ignatius, 482. 

Dorchester Heights, 169, 170. 

Dorr Rebellion, the, 300. 

Douglas, Stephen A., on the Nebraska Bill, 

324; nomination of, 335; App., xxv. 
Douglas-Lincoln debate, 330-332. 
Draft riot in N. Y. City, 391. 
Drake, Joseph Rodman, App., iv. 
Drake, Sir Francis, voyages of, 40-42, 45. 
Dred Scott decision, 328, 329, 334, 342, note. 
Dress of the colonists, 131, 147. 
Drouth in 18S1, 442. 
Dutch explorations, 46, 47. 

customs in N. Y., 146, 147. 

in N. Y., 100, loi. 

patroons, 145. 

Protestants, 144. 

West India Company, 47. 

Duxbury, Standish house in, 84. 

Early, Gen., marches to Washington, 30. 

Earth, figure of the, 17. 

East India Company, 54. 

East Jersey, 104. 

Education in the colonies, 132, 140, 141, 144. 

Edwards, Jonathan, 134; App., xxi. 

Eggleston, Edward, App., xvii. 

El Caney, 474, 475. 

Elections. See Presidential Elections. 

Electoral commission of 1876, 432. 

votes, counting the, 446. 

Electric light, 437. 

Elk Horn, battle of, 370. 

Emancipation, Proclamation of, 380, 381. 

Embargo, the, 244. 

Embassy to France in 1796, 237. 

Emerson, Dr., 328. 

ICmerson, Ralph Waldo, App., vi. 

Endicott, John, 84, 85. 

England, religious sects in, 79, 80. 

difficulties with, in 1810, 249. 

English, W. H., nomination of, 437. 

English claims to North America, 26, 45. 

colonies, territorial extent of, 124, 125. 

depredations on American commerce, 

245. . 

— : — explorations, 39. 

possessions in North America, in. 

"Era of Good Feeling," the, 265, 458. 

Ericson, Leif, 13-15. 

Ericsson, John, builds the Monitor, 374. 

Erie canal, the, 269. 

Lake, battle of, 256, 257. 

Railroad, 322. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 202. 

Evangeline, poem, 117. 

Everett, Edward, nominated for vice-presi- 
dent, 335. 

Farragut, Admiral, at New Orleans, 372 ; at 

Mobile, 399; App., xxviii. 
Federal Convention of 1787, the, 218, 219. 
Federalist, the, 248. 

Federalist part\, 226, 227; downfall of, 262. 
Ferguson, Gen., at King's Mountain, 198. 



Field, Cyrus W., 421, 422. 
Fifteenth amendment, the, 425. 
" Fifty-four forty or fight," 310. 
Filipinos, War with, 479. 
Fillmore, administration of, 319-322. 
Finances under the confederation, 215. 
Finances of the Confederacy, 410. 
Finances of the Union, 409, 410. 
Financial system, Hamilton's, 229. 
Fires, forest, in 1881, 442. 

great, 426. 

First Legislative Assembly, 60. 
Fisheries, the, 35, 36, 425. 
Floods in 1882, 442. 

Florida, discovery of, 30 ; conquest of, 32 ; 
Sir John Hawkins's voyage to, 40; pur- 
chase of, 266; admitted to the Union, 305 ; 
invasion of, 392. 
Florida, the, 400. 
Foote, Commodore, captures Fort Henry, 

367- 
Force Bill, the, repealed, 458. 
Forrest, Gen., raid by, 393 ; App., xxviii. 
Fort Brown, Texas, 312; Fort Donelson, 
368; Fort Duquesne(Du-kane'), 115-117; 
evacuation of, 118, 119; Fort Erie, siege 
of, 259, 260; Fort Frontenac, 118; Fort 
Henry, attack on, 261, 367; P'ort Jackson, 
capture of, 372; Fort Meigs (Meegs), 
siege of, 255, 256; Fort Mimms, massacre 
at, 259; Fort Moultrie, battle of, 171; 
Fort Necessity, surrender of, 115 ; Fort 
Niagara, 116, 119; Fort Orange, 100; 
Fort St. Philip, 372 ; Fort Pillow, 369, 393 ; 
Fort Stanwix, siege of, 181, 182; Fort 
Stephenson, 256 ; P'ort Sumter, bombard- 
ment and surrender of, 356-358; effect of 
fall of, 358; Fort William Henry, nS. 
" Forty-niners," 317. 
Fourteenth amendment, 418. 
France, difficulties with, during Adams's 
administration, 237, 238, 249. See, also, 
under French. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 134; App., xxiii. 
Franklin, battle of, 398. 
Franklin, state of, 214. 
Fredericksburg, battle of, 380. 
Free-Soilers, the, 326. 

Fremont, Gen. John C, explores the Rocky 
Mountains, 314; conquers California, 315. 
French Alliance, 1S3. 
French and the Indians, 112. 

and Indian War, 1 14-120. 

claims to North America, 39. 

colonists, number of, in. 

in North America, 36-39. 

power in America, downfall, 1 10-122. 

settlements in North America, limits, 

III. 

spoliations, 238. 

sympathizers, 1793, 232. 

traders, 38. 

wars, no. 

Frenchtown, battle of, 255. 
Frobisher, Martin, 42. 
Frolic, the, capture of, 252. 
Fugitive Slave Law, 321, 322. 
Fulton, Robert, 246. 



INDEX. 



Ixi 



Gadsden Purchase, 327. 

Gage, General, 163. 

Galveston, taken by Magruder, 3^9. 

storm, 481. 

Galvez, Governor, 191. 

Garcia, 463. 

Garfield, James A., nomination of, 437 ; 
elected president, 437 ; administration of, 
438, 439 ; assassination of, 439. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, abolition advo- 
cate, 288, 290; publishes the Liderator, 
289. 

Gas, illuminating, 274. 

Gates, Gen., at Saratoga, 1S2 ; in the South, 
196-199. 

Genet (Zhen-ay'), Citizen, 232. 

Genius, tlie, 289, 290. 

Genius of Universal Einaiicipntion, the, 
288. 

Genoa, 18. 

Georgia, settlement and colonization, 72-74 ; 
territory of, 72 ; trustees of, 73 ; govern- 
ment of, 74; Whitefield and Wesley in, 
74, 75; Spanish invasions, 75; British 
army in, 194; rank of, in population, in 
1763, 125 ; the Creek lands question, 276, 
277. 

Germantown, battle of, 184. 

Gerr}^ (g as in get),.Elbridge, in France, 23S. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 384-387. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, colonization expe- 
ditions, 43. 

Goffe, the "regicide," 95. 

Gold, discovery of, in California. 316. 

Gold fever of 1S49, 316, 317. 

Gold in Alaska, 485. 

Gold seekers, 56. 

Goliad, massacre at, 303. 

Gomez, 463. 

Gordon, John B., App., xxix. 

Gosnold, 53-55 ; voj'age of, 45. 

Gourges, 34, 35. 

Government in the English Colonies, 126. 

Grangers, Society of, 427. 

"Granite Road," the, 290, 291. 

Grant, Gen. U. S., captures Fort Donelson, 
367 ; Vicksburg, 387, 388 ; commands army 
of the west, 390; appointed lieutenant- 
general, 393; plan of campaign, 394; 
moves on Richmond, 394 ; changes base 
of operations to the James, 396; forces 
Lee to surrender, 403; elected president, 
423; administration of, 424-432; death, 
44.S- 

Gray, Robert, discovers the Columbia River, 
308. 

" Great awakening," the, 96. 

Great Cham, the, 25. 

Great Eastern, the, 422. 

Great Lakes, the French on the, 38. 

Greeley, Horace, nomination of, 427 ; App., 
xxix. 

Greely, Lieut., polar expedition of, 440. 

Greenback party, the, 437, 443. 

Greene, Gen. Nathaniel, supersedes Gates, 
199; southern campaign of, 200-202. 

Gregg's Texans in the battle of the Wilder- 
ness, 394. 



Guam', 47S. 

Guanahani (Gwah-nah-hahne') Island, 21. 

Guerrikre (Gher-re-air'), the, capture of, 

252. 
Guilford Court-House, battle of, 201, 202. 
Guiteau (Git-to'), C. J., assassin, 439. 
Gdstavus Adolphus, 48. 

Habeas Corpus, suspension of writ of, 358, 
392- 

Hadley, Mass., Indian attack at, 95. 

Hague Tribunal, the, 483. 

Half Moon, the, 47. 

Halleck, Fitz-Greene, App., iv. 

Halleck, Gen., placed in command of Union 
army, 369. 

Hamilton, Alexander, secretary of the treas- 
ury, 228; financial scheme of, 229. 

Hamlin, Hannibal, 335. 

Hammond, Senator, 338. 

Hampton, Gen., 255. 

Hampton Roads, 374, 375. 

Hancock, John, j68. 

Hancock, Gen. W. S., nomination of, 437 ; 
App., xxix. 

" Hannibal of the West," 190. 

Harmer, Gen., expedition of, against the 
Indians, 231. 

Harper's Ferry, John Brown at, 333 ; cap- 
ture of, 379. 

Harris, Joel Chandler, App., xx. 

Harrison, Benjamin, nomination of, 448; 
elected president, 448; character and ser- 
vices of, 449; administration, 450-455; re- 
nominated, 454. 

Harrison, Gen. W. H., at Tippecanoe, 250; 
campaign in Michigan, 255, 256: in battle 
of the Thames," 257 ; elected president, 
297 ; death, 297. 

Harte, Bret, App., xvii. 

Hartford Convention, the, 262. 

Hartford, founded, 89. 

Harvard College, 132. 

Hawaii (Hah-wi'e\ revolution in, 453 ; an- 
nexed to U. S., 476. 

Hawkins, Sir John, on the Florida coast, 
40. 

Hawthorne, Julian, App., xv. 

Hawthorne, Natlianiel, App., vii. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., nomination of, 430; 
elected president, 432 ; administration, 
435-438 ; withdraws F'ederal troops from 
the South, 436. 

Hayiie-Webster debate, 286. 

Heath's Patent, 68, 69. 

Hendricks, Thomas A., nomination of, 431, 
443; death, 445. 

Henry VII, 23. 

Henry, Patrick, 62; defiant speech, 155; 
App., xxiii. 

Henry Letters, the, 250. 

Hobart. Garrett A., 459. 

Hobkirk Hill, 202. 

Hob.son, R. P., 473. 

Holidays in Colonial New England, 131 ; in 
the Middle Colonies, 147 ; in the Southern 
Colonies, 139. 

Holland in the i6th and 17th centuries, 46. 



Ixii 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Holmes, Oliver Wendell, App., x. 

Hood, Gen. J. B., succeeds Johnston, 398 ; 

Tennessee campaign of, 398 ; App., xxx. 
Hooker, Gen. Jos., supersedes Burnside, 

380 ; at Chancellorsville, 382. 
Hooker, Thomas, settles Hartford, 89. 
Hornet, the, and the Peacock, 254. 
Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 259. 
Houston (Hew'ston), Sam, 303 ; App., 

XX vi. 
Howe, Gen., 176, 177. 
Howells, W. D., App., xv. 
Hudson, Henry, voyage of, 42. 
Hudson's Bay, 42. 
Hudson River, discovery, 46, 47 ; campaign 

on the, 177. 
Huguenots, massacre of the, 34 ; settle- 
ments of, in South Carolina and Florida, 

37. 71- 
Hull, Capt. Isaac, 252. 
Hull, Gen. William, defeated at Detroit, 

251. _ 
Hutchinson, Anne, teachings of, 86. 
Hutchinson, Chief-Justice, 158. 

Idaho, admission of, 453. 

Illinois country, Clark's expedition to the, 

190, 191. 
Impeachment proceedings against President 

Johnson, 419. 
Impressment of American seamen, 245, 250. 
Indian massacres in Virginia, 59. 
Indian tribes, classitication of, 3. 
Indian wars, 7, 93, 94. 
Indiana, the, 467, 471. 
Indiana admitted to the Union, 263. 
Indians, as allies, 9; characteristics, 9; 

clothing, 4; government and religion, 6; 

home life, 4; on the reservations, 10; 

lands of, 8; relations with the whites, 8; 

social distinctions among, 5 ; tortures by, 7. 
Indians in the Southwest, 191. 
Internal improvements, 268, 269; John 

Quincy Adams's policy in regard to, 274, 

275 ; policy of Congress, 277. 
Internal revenue, 410. 
Interstate Railroad Commission, 446. 
Inventions, 437. 
Iowa, the, 467, 471. 
Iowa, admission of, 305. 
Iron furnaces in Virginia, 135. 
Ironclad oath, the, 419. 
Ironclads, 374. 

Iroquois (Ir'ro-quoy), the, 3, 112. 
Irving, Washington, App., i. 
Isabella, Queen, ig, 20, 22. 
Island No. 10, fall of, 369. 
Isthmian Canal, 482, 485. 
Italy, trouble with, in regard to New 

Orleans riot, 451. 
luka, battle of, 370. 

Jackson, governor of Missouri, 364. 

Jackson, Gen. Andrew, in the Creek War, 
259 ; at New Orleans, in 1814, 263 ; in the 
Seminole War, 266 ; services of, 282 ; ad- 
ministration of, 282-292 ; treatment of the 
NulUfiers, 287. 



Jackson, "Stonewall," at Manassas, 363, 
364; in the Shenandoah Valley, 377, 378; 
death of, 383 ; App., xxx. 

James, Henry, App., xiv. 

James River, 55. 

Jamestown, Va., settlement of, 45, 55, 56: 
sufferings of the settlers, 57; principal 
town in Va., 136; first church in, 140. 

Japan, treaty with, 327. 

Jasper, Sergeant, 171, 172, 195. I 

Jay's treaty, 232, 233. | 

Jeannette, the, 440. I 

Jefferson, Thomas, 62 ; and the Declaration! 
of Independence, 173 ; secretary of state,! 
228 ; elected president, 240; administration^ 
of, 241-246 ; his plan for gradual extinction', 
of slavery, 267. .1 

Johnson, Andrew, governor of Tenn., 370;} 
becomes president, 404 ; administration^ 
of, 416-424 ; impeachment of, 419, 420. | 

Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, 366; death! 
of, 369; App., xxx. I 

Johnston, Gen. J. E., at Bull Run, 363,1 
364 ; succeeded by Gen. Lee, 377 ; opposes? 
Sherman in Georgia and the Carolinas,] 
397, 402; surrenders, 404; App., xxxi. j 

Johnstown flood, the, 453. ^ 

Jones, Paul, naval victory of, 192, 193. , 

Kansas, the struggle for, 325, 326; admis-« 
sion of, 332. •, 

Kansa.s-and-Nebraska Bill, 323-325. j 

Katahdin, the, 467. \ 

Kearney (Kar'ny), Gen., in New Mexico,' 
315,316. \ 

Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 398. I 

Kent, General, 475. 

Kentucky, becomes a state, 214; Indian] 
massacres in, 23 1 ; admitted to the Union, t 



232 ; adheres to the Union, 359. 
Kentucky Resolutions, the, 239. 
Kettle Creek, Ga., 194. 
Key, Francis S., 261. 
King George's War, 113, 114. 
King Philip's War, 94-98. 
King William's War, 113, 114. 
King's Mountain, battle of, ig8. 
Klondike region, 485. 
Know-Nothing party, 326. 
Knox, Gen., secretary of war, 228. 
Ku Klux Klan, the, 427. 

Labor riots in 1877, 436. 

Labor troubles in 1886, 446. 

Lafayette, Gen., 183, 184; his visit to Amer- 
ica, 270, 271 ; in Virginia campaign, 202,203. 

Lanier, Sidney, App., xix. 

La Salle (Lah-sahl') explores the Mississ- 
ippi, 38, 39. 

Las Guasimas, 474. 

Lawrence, Capt., attacks the Shannon, 254 ; 
death, 255. 

Lawrence, the, 256, 257. 

Laws of New England Colonies, 129. 

Lawton, Gen., 475. 

Lecompton Constitution, the, 330. 

Lee, Gen. Charles, disobeys Washington, 
177, 178; rebuked, 187; suspended, 188. 



INDEX. 



Ixiii 



Lee, Gen. Fitzhugh, 464, 468. 

Gen. Heniy, 200. 

Richard Henry, 172, 173 : App., xxiv. 

Gen. Robert E., assumes command 

of Army of Virginia, 377 ; invades Mary- 
land, 379, 380; defeats Hooker, 382-384; 
invades Pennsylvania, 3S4; retreat of, 
387 ; repulses Grant in the Wilderness, 
394 ; surrender of, 403 ; sketch, 405-407. 

Stephen D., at Chickasaw Bayou, 

381 ; App., xxxi. 

Lees, the, 62. 

Leisler (Lise'ier), Jacob, governor of New 
York, 102. 

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 244, 308. 

Lexington, battle of, 163-166. 

" Liberal Republicans," the, 427, 428. 

Liberator, the, 289, 290. 

Liberty, Statue of, 447. 

Lincoln, Abraham, against Douglas, 331 ; 
nomination of, 335; election, 336; admin- 
istration of, 355-404; issued Proclamation 
of Emancipation, 380; reelection, 402; 
assassination of, 404; his plan of recon- 
struction, 416, 417. 

Lincoln, Gen., 194; surrender of, 195, 196. 

Lincoln-Douglas debate, 330-332. 

Literature of New England Colonies, 132, 
133; in Southern Colonies, 141. 

Locke, John, his " Fundamental Constitu- 
tions," 69, 72. 

Locomotive, the, 274. 

" Log Cabin," candidate, 297. 

Logan, nomination of John A., 443. 

London Company, the, 54, 62. 

Long Island, battle of, 176. 

Longfellow, Henry W., App., viii. 

Longstreet, Gen., 385, 390, 391. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 391. 

Loose Constructionists, 227. 

Losses in the war between the states, 408. 

Louisburg, capture of, 114, 118. 

Louisiana, name applied by La Salle to the 
Mississippi Valley, 39. 

Louisiana, purchase of, 243 ; admitted to the 
Union, 263 ; election dispute in 1876, 431. 

Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 486. 

Lovejoy, Elijah, murder of, 295. 

Lovering, Joshua, 459. 

Lowell, James Russell, App., xi. 

Lundy, Benjamin, early Abolitionist, 288. 

Lynchburg, Va., movement against, 395, 
396- 

Lyon, Matthew, imprisonment of, 239. 

Lyon, Gen., campaign of, in Missouri, 365. 

Maceo, General, 463. 

Madison, James, administration of, 247-271. 

Mafia (Mah-fee'ah), the, 451. 

Magellan, 31, 42. 

Straits of, 41. 

Magruder, Gen., 389; App., xxxi. 

Maine, admission of, 268. 

Mabie, destruction of the, 465 ; court of 

inquiry, 466. 
Maiden, Mich., 255. 
Malvern Hill, battle of, 378. 
Manassas, battles of, 362-364, 379. 



Manila Bay, battle of, 46S; capture of citv, 

478. 
Mansfield, battle of, 393. 
Maria Teresa, 476. 
Marion, Gen. Francis, 196, 200. 
Marriages in the Southern Colonies, 139. 
Martin, Gen. Joseph, 191. 
Maryland, founders of, 65; settlement, 65- 

68 ; boundary dispute with Virginia, 66 ; 

religious troubles, 67. 
Maryland Gazetie,ihe, 141. 
Mason, Capt. John, in Pequod War, 93. 
Mason and Dixon's Line, 67, 125. 
Mason and Slidell, capture of, 365, 366. 
Massachusetts, the, 467, 472. 
Massachusetts, rank in population in 1763, 

125 ; resolutions on Tovvnshend Acts, 159 ; 

annulment of charter, 161. 
Massachusetts Bay Colony, 84-88. 
Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Society, 325. 
Massasoit, 94. 

Matagorda Bay, La Salle at, 39. 
Matamoras, capture of, 312. 
Mather, Increase, and witchcraft, 87. 
Maury, Matthew F., 333, 421 ; App., xxvi. 
Maximilian, Emperor, 421. 
Mayflower, the, 81. 
Mayflower Compact, the, 82. 
McClellan, Gen. G. B., in West Virginia, 

362 ; assumes command of the Army of 

the Potomac, 375; against Lee, 375-377, 

379, 3S0 ; nominated for president, 402 ; 

App., xxxii. 
McClure, Capt., 43. 
McCjiUoch, the, 469. 
McCulloch, Gen. Ben., 365, 370. 
McDonough, Commodore, 260. 
McDowell, Chas., 198. 
McDowell, Gen. Irvin, at Bull Run, 362, 

363; threatens Richmond, 377; guards 

Washington City, 377. 
McEnery, Gov., 431. 
McInto.sh, Gen., death of, 276. 
McKinley, William, 459, 460, 482. 
McKinley Bill, the, 450. 
Meade, Gen., succeeds Hooker, 384; at 

Gettysburg, 384, 387- 
Mecklenburg Declaration, the, 166, 167. 
Memphis, fall of, 369. 
Menendez(May-nen'deth), Pedro de, founds 

St. Augustine, 34; massacres Huguenots 

in Carolina, 34. 
Merrimac, the, 373-375. 

(in Spanish War), 473. 

Merritt, W., 478. 

Metcalf, H. B., 482. 

Mexico, City of, capture of, 314. 

Mexico, Gulf of. La Salle in, 39, 40. 

Mexico, war with, 311-314; the French in, 

421. 
Middle Colonies, the, 99, 143. 
Miles, Nelson A., 477. 
Military government in the South, 419. 
Mill Spring, battle of, 367. 
Miller, Joaquin, App., xvi. 
Mills Bill, the, 448. 
Mineral discoveries, 332. 
Ministers' salaries in colonial Va., 155. 



Ixiv 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Minnesota, admission of, 332. 

Missionaries, Roman Catholic, in North 
America, 38. 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 391. 

Mississippi ceded to U. S., 214. 

Mississippi River, Confederate defenses on 
the, 360; discovery by De Soto, 33; ex- 
ploration, 38, 39; floods, in 1882, 442 ; navi- 
gation of, 214, 215; operations on the, in 
1862, 369, 371. 

Missouri " border ruffians," 326. 

Missouri campaign in 1861, 364, 365. 

Missouri Compromise, the, 267, 26S, 320, 
324, 325 ; opinion of Supreme Court on, 
329, 330. 

Missouri Fur Company, 309. 

Mobile, Admiral Farragut in, 399. 

Modoc War, the, 429. 

Money System of Jefferson and Morris, 216. 

Monitor, the, and J\Ierriinac, the, 373. 

Monmouth, battle of, 187, 188. 

Monocacy (Mo-nok'a-sy), battle of, 396. 

Monroe, James, administration of, 264-270 ; 
his tour in N. E., 264, 265. 

Monroe Doctrine, the, 269, 270, 459. 

Montana, admission of, 453. 

Montcalm, 11S-120. 

Monterey (Mon-te-ray'), capture of, 312. 

Moore's Creek, N. C, battle of, 170. 

Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 200, 201. 

Morgan, Gen. John, raid of, 389. 

Mormon insurrection, 330. 

Mormons, the, 300, 301, 440, 446. 

Morris, Robert, 215. 

Morse, S. F. B., invents telegraph, 296, 301. 

Morton, Levi P., nomination of, 448. 

Motley, John Lothrop, App., xiii. 

Moultrie, Fort, battle of, 1776, 171. 

Mounds of the Mississippi Valley, 10. 

Mount Vernon, 226. 

Murfreesboro, battle of, 371. 

Muscovy Company, the, 54. 

Mutiny Act, the, 159. 

Nashville, the, blockade runner, 365. 

Nashville, battle of, 398. 

National banks, 283, 284, 292, 29S, 299, 410. 

National Republicans, the, 275. 

Naval battles, 1812, 251, 252. 

Navigation Acts, 153, 154. 

Navy, new warships, 452. 

Navy in the Revolution, igi. 

Nebraska, admission of, 419; Bill, 324. 

Negro uprisings, 290. 

Neutral rights, 366, 

Neutrality policy, 232. 

Nevada, admission of, 402. 

New Amsterdam, 47. 

New England and the tariff, in 1816, 285. 

New England and Secession, 340, 341. 

New England Colonies, 79-97; president 
and council of, 83 ; great revival, 96 ; occu- 
pations of the people in 1763, 127 ; town 
life, 128; Sabbath in, 129; laws, 129; 
education, 132. 

New England Confederation, the, of 1643, 
94. 

New England Emigrant Society, 325, 326. 



New England Primer, 234. 

New Hampshire, settlement, 92. 

New Haven Colony, 90. 

New Jersey, Dutch claims to, 48 ; settle- 
ment, 103, 104. 

New Mexico, conquest of, 315, 316. 

Sibley's Expedition to, 373. 

New Netherland, 100. 

New Orleans, battle of, 263 ; capture of, 373 ; 
exposition, 442. 

New Sweden, 48. 

Ne7v York, the, 467, 471. 

New York City, settled, loo; Dutch pur- 
chase from the Indians, 103 ; English cap- 
ture, 102; British occupation, 177; cam- 
paign around, in 1776-78, 176; draft riots, 
391- 

New York Colony, Dutch in, 99-101 ; Eng- 
lish rule, 102; population in 1763, 125; 
occupations of the people, 143 ; religious 
intolerance, 144; education, 144; govern- 
ment, 145; social life, 146. 

Newfoundland, 114. 

Newfoundland fisheries, 35. 

Newport, Christopher, 55. 

Newport, Rhode Island, attack on, 188. 

Newspapers in the Southern Colonies, 141, 
142. 

Niagara, the, 256, 257. 

Niagara, battle of, 259. 

Nicaraguan Canal route, 485, 486. 

Nicholson, Gov., tyranny of, 152. 

North, Lord, downfall of, 205. 

North Carolina, settlement and colonization, 
68; ratifies Constitution, 220. 

North Dakota, admission of, 453. 

Northern plan of campaign in 1861, 361. 

Northmen, the, 13. 

Northwest passage, the, 42. 

Nortluvest Territory, the, 213; Maryland 
and the, 211. 

Northwestern boundary, the, 308, 425. 

Nullification, 286, 287, '322. 

Oath of supremacy, 66. 

Ocean Pond, 392. 

Oglethorpe, Gov. James, of Georgia, 73, 

74- 
Ohio, admission of, 243; settlers in, 231, 

232. 
Ohio Company, the, 114. 
Oil wells in Pennsylvania, 332. 

in Texas, 486. 

Oklahoma boom, the, 452, 453. 

"Old Dominion," the, 62. 

Old Ironsides, 252. 

Olynipia, the, 469, 470. 

(^maha, Neb., Exposition in, 461. 

Omnibus Bill, the, 320, 321, 324. 

Opechancanough (O-pe-can-can'o) massacres 

the whites in Va., 59. 
Ordinance of 1787, 213, 214. 
Oregon, the, 467, 472. 
Oregon, exploration of, 244; admission of, 

332- 
Oregon question, the, 308. 
" Oregon trail," the, 308-310. 
Orleans, territory of, 263. 



INDEX. 



Ixv 



Otis, James, and the Writs of Assistance, 

154 ; App., xxiv. 
E. S., 479- 

Pacific Ocean, discovery of, 31. 

railroad, 426. 

explorations, 322. 

Page, Thomas Nelson, App., xix. 
Palmer, John M., 459. 
Palo (Pahlo) Alto, battle of, 311, 312. 
Panama Canal, 485, 486. 
Pan-Americau Congress, the first, 449; sec- 
ond, 484. 
Pan-American Exposition, 482. 
Panic of 1837-38, 294; of 1857, 330; of 1S73, 

429; of 1893, 455- 
Paper money, 216. See, also. Currency. 
Parkman, Francis, App., xiii. 
Parliament and the Colonies, 156, 157. 
" Parson's case," the, 155. 
Parties during Washington's administration, 

226, 227. 
Patroons, the, 100. 
Pea Ridge, battle of, 370. 
Peace, treaty of, 2o(). 
Peace Congress, 338. 
Peacock, the, 254. 
Peninsular campaign, 2,T~,-Z77- 

Penn, William, 104-106; App., xxii. 
Pennsylvania, settlement of, 104; Quakers, 
104; population in 1763, 125; occupations 
of the colonists, 143 ; government of, 145; 
religious toleration, 144. 
Pequod War, 93. 

Perry, Commodore O. H., victory on Lake 
Erie, 256, 257. 

Commodore M. C., expedition to 

Japan, 327. 

Perryville, Ky., battle of, 370. 

Personal Liberty Bills, 322, 338, 342. 

Petersburg, Va., fortifications around, 3q6. 

Philadelphia, settled, 105 ; relative rank in 
population, 125; campaign around, in 177'', 
183, 184; capture of, 184; British leave, 
1S7; capital, 236. 

Philadelphia, frigate, 242, 243. 

Philip, King, 94, g6 ; war on whites, 94-97. 

Philippine Islands, 478, 480. 

Phillips, Wendell, on Lovejoy assassination, 
295- 

Phonograph, the, 437. 

Pickens, Gen., 196, 200. 

Gov., 357. 

Pickett's charge at Gettysburg, 3S6. 

Pierce, Franklin, administration of, 323-327. 

Pike's Peak, gold at, 332. 

Pilgrims, the, 81. 

Pillory, the, 137. 

Pine-Tree shilling, 216. 

"Pious Fund" dispute, 483. 

Pirates of the Mediterranean, 242, 243. 

Pitcairn, Maj., 164. 

Pitt, William, 118, 158. 

Pizarro, 32. 

Plantation life, 138, 139. 

Plantations of the South, the, 136. 

Pittsburgh, battle of, 260. 

Pleasant Hill, battle of, 393. 



Plows, 234. 

Plymouth, settlement of, 82. 
Plymouth Colony, "Separatists" of, 79; 
founders of, 80 ; settlement of, 82 ; early 
years of, 83, 84; union with Mass., 84. 

Company, the, 55, 83. 

patent, the, 81. 

Pocahontas and John Smith, 58, 59. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, App., iv. 

Polar Expeditions, 440. 

Polk, James K., elected president, 305: 
administration of, 307-317. 

Polo, Marco, 17, 25. 

Polygamy, laws against, 440, 446. 

Ponce de Leon (Pon'thay day lay-own'), 30, 31 

Poor Richard's Almanack, 133, 134. 

Pope, Gen., takes command on the Potomac. 
379- 

Population in 1890, 454. 

Population of the Colonies, 124. 

"Populists," the, 454. 

Port Hudson, surrender of, 388. 

Port Royal, Nova Scolia, settled, 37 ; cap- 
ture of, 114. 

Port Royal, S. C, 7^. 

Porto Rico, 478. 

Postage rates, reduction of, 441. 

Potomac River, 65. 

Powhatan (Pow-ha-tan'), Va., 59. 

Prescott, William H., App., xiii. 

President's election, powers, and duties, 221. 

Presidential election of 1789, 225; of 1800, 
240; of 1808, 247; of 1812, 254; of 1824 
271; of 1840, 297; of 1844, 305; of 1852, 
323 ; of i860, 336 ; of 1864, 402 ; of 1868 
423; of 1876, 430; of 1880, 437: of 1884 
443; of 1888, 448; of 1892, 454; of 1896 
459; of 1900, 481. 

Presidential succession, 445, 446. 

Prevost (Pre-vo'), Gen., 194, 260. 

Price, Gen. Sterling, 365, 370, 400. 

Price's Raid, 400. 

Princeton, battle of, 179, 180. 

Princeton College, 144. 

Printing in Colonial Virginia, 141. 

Prisoners, exchange of, 400. 

Proctor, Gen., 255; attacks Fort Stephen- 
son, 256. 

Senator, 466. 

Prohibitionists, the, 443, 448, 454, 459- 

" Protection," 454. 

Protective tariff, 285. See, also, Tariff. 

Providence, settlement of, 91. 

Pueblo (Pway'blo) Indians, the, 2. 

Pulaski, Count, 195. 

Punishments in Colonial New England, 130. 

Puritans,. 79, 85, 127-134. 

Quakers in Pennsylvania, 104-106, 144, 147. 
Quebec, attack on, 169; capture of, 119, 

120; founding of, 37. 
Queen Anne's War, 113, 114. 
Queenstown Heights, capture of, 253. 
Quincy railway, 290. 

Radicals, the, 417- 

Railroads, early, 290, 291 ; development of, 
322 ; transcontinental, 426. 



Ixvi 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Raleigh, the, 469. 

Raleigh (Raw'ly), Sir Walter, charter to, 

43; expeditions of, 43, 44 ; App., xxii. 
Randolph, Edmund, secretary of war, 228. 
Reagan, John H., App., xxxii. 
" Reciprocity policy," 450. 
Reconstruction Acts of Congress, 41S. 
Reconstruction period, 416 et seq. 
Red River expedition, 393. 
Reid, Whitelaw, nomination of, 454. 
Reina Cristiiia, the, 470. 
Religion, in the New England Colonies, 

128; in the Southern Colonies, 139; in 

the Middle Colonies, 144. 
Republican Conventional Chicago in i860, 

335- 
Republican party, the, 232, 326. 
Rssaca de la Palma (Ray-sah'cah dey lah 

Pal'mah), battle of, 312. 
Resumption Act, the, 436. 
" Returning Boards," the, 431. 
Revere, Paul, 164. 
Revival, the great, of 1740, 96. 
Revolution, beginnings of, 163, 164 ; War of 

the, 152-206. 
Rhode Island, settlement of, gi ; the Dorr 

Rebellion, 300; ratifies Constitution, 220. 
Rice culture in South Carolina, 71. 
Richmond, Va., settlement of, 58 ; capital 

of Southern Confederacy, 359; evacua.ion 

of, 403. 
Rio Grande boundary, 311. 
Ripley, Gen., in Canada, 259. 
Roanoke Island, Raleigh's Colony, 44. 
Rochambeau (Ro-sham-bo'), Gen., 2oj. 
Rocket, the, 291. 
Rogers, Col. W. P., 370. 
Rolfe, Capt. John, 58-60. 
Roosevelt, Theodore, 468, 475, 481, 4S2, 483- 

486. 
Rosecrans, Gen.W. S., at Murfreesboro, 371 ; 

defeat of, 390 ; App., xxxii. 
Ross, Gen., attacks Baltimore, 261. 
Ro.ss, Gen. Sul, 371. 
"Rotten boroughs," 157. 
Rough Riders, 468, 474, 475. 

Sabbath observance, 129. 

Sabine Cross Roads, 393. 

Sabine Pass, attack on, 389. 

Sabine River, boundary, 266. 

Sackett's Harbor, attack on, 258. 

Sacramento, growth of, in 1849, 317. 

Sagas (Say'gaz), the Norse, 15, 16. 

Sagasta, 465. 

St. Augustine, Fla., settlement of, 34 ; burn- 
ing of , 71. 

St. Clair, Gen., defeat of, 231. 

St. John, J. P., nomination of, 443. 

St. Lawrence, Cartier on the, 37. 

St. Leger (Lej'er), at Fort Stanwix, 182. 

St. Louis, Louisiana Purchase Exposition 
in, 486. 

St. Mary's, Maryland, 65. 

St. Regis, battle' of, 258. 

" Salary grab," the, 428. 

Salem, Mass., settlement of, 84; witchcraft 
in, 87. 



Samoan dispute, the, 451. 

Sampson, W. T., 471, 472. 

San Francisco in 1849, 317. 

San Francisco Bay, Drake in, 41. 

San Jacinto, battle of, 303. 

San Jacinto, the, 366. 

San Juan, 475. 

San Salvador Island, 21. 

Sandys, Sir Edwin, 60. 

Santa Anna, Gen., defeat of, 313, 314. 

Santa Fe, N. M., capture of, 316. 

Santa A/aria (Mah-ree'ah), the, 20. 

Santiago, 472, 474, 475, 476. 

Saratoga, battle of, 182. 

Savannah, Ga., settlement of, 74 ; capture 

of, 194; American and French attack on, 

195 ; capture of, 399. 
Saybrook, Fort, Conn., 89, 90. 
Schley (Sly), W. S., 472. 
Schools in the colonies, 132, 141, 144. 
Schuyler (Ski'ler), Gen., 181, 1S2. 
Scientific progress, 1837-40, 296; 1858-60, 

333- 

Scotch-Irish in Virginia, 63, 64. 

Scotch Presbyterians in New Jersey, 144. 

Scott, Dred, 328, 329, 

Scott, Gen. W. S., in Canada, 259; cam- 
paign in Mexico, 313, 314. 

Seal fisheries, the, 423, .:5-. 

Secession, the "mode of redress," 341. 

Secession, reasons for, 342, 343. 

Secession, right of, 340, 341. 

Secession of Southern states, 339, 359. 

Secession ordinance, 339. 

Seminole War, the, 265, 266, 288, 318. 

Semmes, Raphael, App., xxxiii. 

" Separatists," the, 79, 80. 

Serapis (Ser-ay'pis), the, 193. 

Settlement, first permanent, 34; other set- 
tlements, 35. 

Seven Days' Battles, 1862, 378. 

Seven Pines, battle of, 377. 

Sevier (Se-veer'), John, 198, 214; App., xxiv. 

Seward, W. H., 357, 366, 404. 

Seymour (Se'more), Horatio, 423. 

Shaffer, Gen., 474, 476. 

Shannon, the, 254, 255. 

Sharpsburg, or Antietam, battle of, 379, 380. 

Shays's Rebellion, 217. 

Shenandoah, the, 400. 

Shenandoah Valley, operations in the, 395, 
396 ; Stonewall Jackson's campaign, 377, 
378. 

Sheridan, Gen., campaign of, in the Shen- 
andoah Valley, 396, 403. 

Sherman, Gen., at Vicksburg, 387; moves 
on Mobile, 392; marches to oppose John- 
ston, 394; pursues Johnston in Georeia, 
397 ; "March to the Sea," 399; in the Car- 
olinas, 402; App., xxxiii. 

Sherman Act, the, 450. 

Shiloh, battle of, 368. 

Sibley, Gen., in New Mexico, 373. 

Sigel (See'gel), Gen., 394, 395. 

Sigsbee, Capt., 465, 466. 

Silver, demonetization of, 429; restoration 
of, 436. 

Silver discovered in Nei^ada, 332. 



INDEX. 



Ixvii 



Silver legislation in 1888, 450. 

Silver question, in 1893, 455; in 1896, 459; 
in 1897, 461. 

Simms, William Gilmore, App., xviii. 

Sioux (Soo) Indians, 3; uprising in 1876, 429. 

Sitting Bull, 429. 

Slaughter (Slo'ter), Gov., 102. 

" Slave " and " Free " States, 266. 

Slave labor in Southern Colonies, 135. 

Slave ship, the first, 86. 

Slavery, abolition of, 409; in the colonies, 
125 ; in Southern Colonies, 136 ; in the ter- 
ritories, 266, 267, 320; position of parties 
on, in i860, 335, 336 ; prohibited in North- 
west Territory, 214 ; prohibited in Georgia, 
74; Southern view of, 289, 343. 

Slaves, the first, 5i; prohibition of importa- 
tion of, 245. 

Sloat, Commodore, 315. 

Smith, Capt. John, sketch of, 54 ; the 
■' Great Deliverer," 58 ; m New England, 
93- 

Smith, Joseph, founder of Mormonism, 300, 
301. 

Smith, Gen. Kirby, raids Kentucky, 370; 
surrender of, 405 ; App., xxxiii. 

Smithson, James, 296. 

Smithsonian Institution, the, 275. 

Smuggling, 152, 153 ; in New Jersey, 104. 

Smyth, Gen., expedition of, to Canada, 253, 
254. 

Social life in the Middle Colonies, 146 ; in 
New England Colonies, 130 ; in the South- 
em Colonies, 138, 139. 

" Solid South," the, 437. 

South, preparation of the, for war, 359; 
condition of the, at close of the war, 40S, 
409; sentiment of, in 1S60, 340-343; war 
in the, in 1778-80, 193. 

South Carolina, settlement and colonization, 
70-72 , rice culture, 71 ; fundamental con- 
stitutions, 72 ; British in, 196 ; nullifica- 
tion in, 286, 287; secession of, 339. 

Interstate Exposition, 486. 

South Dakota, admission of, 453. 

Southern Colonies, the, 135-142; form of 
government of, 137. 

Southern States, political condition in 1876, 
427 ; readmission of, 418, 419. 

Spain and the navigation of the Mississippi, 
215. 

Spaniards in Georgia, troubles with, 75. 

Spanish explorations, 29; claims, 35. 

Spanish War, 462-480. 

Specie payments, resumption of, 429. 

Spoils system, 283. 

Spottswood, Gov., 64, 135. 

Squatter sovereignty, 325, 331. 

Stamp Act, the, 156-158. 

Stamp Act Congress, 158. 

Standard time, 442. 

Standish, Miles, 83, 84. 

" Star Route " frauds, 440. 

" Star Spangled Banner," 261. 

Stark, Gen., 181. 

" Stars and Bars," 360. 

State Sovereignty doctrine, 292. 

Steamboat, the first, 246. 



Stephens, Alexander H., vice-president of 
Southern Confederacy, 347, 348. 

Stephenson, George, 291. 

Stevenson, A. E., 454, 481. 

Stockton, Frank R., App., xvi. 

Stony Point, capture of, 194, 195. 

" Strict Constructionists," 227. 

Stuart, Gen. J. E. B., 377, 383 ; App., xxxiii. 

Stuyvesant (Sty've-sant), Peter, loi. 

Sub-Treasury system, 294, 299. 

Sulhvan, Gen., expedition against the In- 
dians, 188. 

Su7nter, blockade runner, 365. 

Sumter, Fort. See Fort Sumter. 

Sumter, Gen., 196, 200. 

Supreme Court, the, 221, 222. 

Sutter, Capt., 316. 

Sutter's Fort, 315. 

" Swamp Fox," the, 196. 

Swanzey, Mass., Indian massacre at, 95. 

Swedes in America, the, 48-50. 

Taney, Chief Justice, 330. 

Tariff Act of 1842, 300; of 1883, 441. 

Tariff legislation under Jackson, 284-286 ; 
in 1857, 330; Morrill (i860), 409; in 1888, 
448; the McKinley Bill, 450; the Wilson 
Bill, 456; the Dingley Bill, 461. 

" Tariff for revenue only," 454. 

Tarleton, Gen., 201. 

Taylor, Bayard, App., xiii. 

Taylor, Richard, App., xxxiv. 

Taylor, Gen. Z., defeats Seminoles, 288; 
march of, to the Rio Grande, 311 : invades 
Mexico, 312; defeats Mexicans at Buena 
Vista, 312; elected president, 319; ser- 
vices and character of, 318. 

"Tea Party" in Boston Harbor, 161. 

Tea tax, 160, 161. 

Tecumseh, 249, 256, 257. 

Telegraph put into operation, 301. 

Telephone, the, 437. 

Tennessee, the, 399. 

Tennessee, ceded to the U. S., 214 ad- 
mitted to the Union, 232. 

" Tenure of Office " Act, 419. 

Territories, slavery in the, 320. 

Texas, the, 467, 472. 

Texas, Spanish in, 33 ; relinquished to 
Spain, 266; independence of, 302 ; annexa- 
tion of, 304, 305, 311 ; campaign of 1863 
in, 389; Confederate soldiers from, 410. 

Thames, battle of the, 257. 

Thomas, Gen. G. H., at Chickamauga and 
Chattanooga, 390 ; defeats Hood at Nash- 
ville, 399; App., xxxiv. 

Thoreau, H. D., App., vi. 

Thurman, Allen G., nomination of, 448. 

Ticonderoga, Fort, 118, 183. 

Tilden, Samuel J., nomination of, 431. 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 249, 250. 

" Tippecanoe and Tyler too," 297. 

Tithing-men, 129. 

Tobacco, introduction of, into Europe, 44; 
culture of, in Va., 59, 60, 135. 

Tomahawk, the, 7. 

Tomochichi (-chee-chee), Indian chief, 74. 

Toombs, Robert, 345 ; App., xxxiv. 



lAviii 



HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY. 



Totem, the, 5. 

Town life in New England Colonies, 12S. 
Town meeting, 12S. 
Towne, Chas. A., 482. 
Towns, absence of, in the South, 136. 
Townshend Acts, 159. 
Trans-Mississippi Exposition, 461. 
Travel, facilities of, 234. 
Treaty of Ghent, 262. 
Treaty of Peace, 1783, 206, 212. 
Treaty of Washington, 424. 
Treaty with England, 232. 
Treaty with France, iSoo, 240. 
Treaty with Japan, 327. 
Treaty with Mexico, 3 16. 
Treaty with Spain, 478. 
Trent, affair of the, 365. 
Trenton, battle of, 179. 
Tripoli, war with, 242, 243. 
Twain, Mark, App., xvii. 
Tyler, John, administration of, 297-305; at 
Peace Congress, 338. 

Underground railway, the, 322, 338. 
Utah, admission of, 456. 

Valley Forge, camp at, 186. 

Van Buren, Martin, elected president, 292; 
administration of, 293-296. 

Vancouver's Island, 425. 

Van Uorn, Gen., 370, 387 ; App., xxxiv. 

Venezuela Controversy, 459. 

Vera Cruz, siege of, 313. 

Verrazzani (Vay-raht-zahn'i), 36. 

Vespucci, Amerigo (Ah-ma-re'go Ves-poot- 
che), 29. 

I'esHvitis, the, 467. 

Vicksburg, fall of, 387, 388. 

Virginia, named, 44 ; settlement and colo- 
nization of, 53-65 ; first charter, 56 ; first 
Assembly, 60; slaves in colony of, 61; 
settlement of valley, 63 ; population in 
1763, 125; the Townshend Acts, 159; 
resolutions of Assembly of, on Boston 
Port Bill, 162 ; Lord Dunmore's war, 170; 
cedes N. W. Territory, 213. • 

Virginia Bill of Rights, 248. 

Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 239. 

Virgitiia, the, 374, 375- 

Vizcaya, the, 476. 

War, Mexican, 31 1-3 14. 

War of 1812-1814, 250-262. 

War between the states, cause, 344 : first 
year of, 355-366; second year, 366-382; 
campaign of 1863, 382-392; campaign of 
1864,392-402; 1865,402-405; comparative 
strength of Union and Confederate armies, 
407 ; losses, 40S ; close of the, 405 ; finan- 
cial cost of, 408 ; results, 409. 

War-ships, construction of new, 451. 

Washington, George, expedition to Ohio, 
114, 115; with Braddock, 116, 117; ap- 
pointed commander of the Continental 
army, 168; takes command, 168; retreat 
through New Jersey, 177, 178; crosses 
the Delaware, 178, 179; at Trenton, 179; 
at Clmd's Ford, 184; at Valley Forge, 



186 ; rebukes Lee, 187 ; plans to attack 
Cornwallis, 203 ; president of Constitu- 
tional Convention. 218; inauguration of, 
226 ; administration of, 225-235 ; appointed 
commander-in-chief of the army, 238 ; 
' death, 239. 

John, 62. 

City, capital of the United States, 

236; capture of, 261. 

state of, admission of, 453. 

Wasp, the, 252, 253. 

Wayne, Gen., at Stony Point, 195 ; defeats 
INIaumee Indians, 231. 

Weaver, J. B., nominated by the " Popu- 
lists," 454. 

Webster, Daniel, replies to Hayne, 286 ; on 
the tariff of 1816, 285 ; supports protective 
tariff, 286; debate of, with Calhoun, 287; 
App., xxvi ; on Compromise of 1850, 321. 

Wesley, John, in Georgia, 74, 75. 

West Jersey, 104. 

West Virginia, loyal to the Union, 359; 
campaign of 186 1 in, 362 ; admission of, 
392. 

West, settlement of the, 230, 231. 

Weyler, General, 463, 465. 

Wheeler, General Joe, 468, 475. 

Wheeler, William A., nomination of, 430. 

Whig party, the, 291, 292. 

" Whiskey insurrection," the, 239. 

" Whiskey ring," the, 428. 

Whitefield (Whit'field), George, in Georgia, 
74, 75; and the " Great Awakening," 96; 
on slaveiy, 136. 

Whitman, Marcus, expedition of, to Oregon, 
310. 

Whitney, Eli, 233. 

Whittier, John G., App., ix. 

Wigglesworth, M., his " Day of Doom," 134. 

Wilderness, battles of the, 394, 395. 

Willamette Valley, 310, note i. 

William and Mary College, Virginia, 64, 
140, 141. 

Williams, Roger, 86, 91 ; App., xxii. 

Williamsburg, capital of Virginia, 64; en- 
gagement at, 376. 

Willis, N. P., App., V. 

Wilmot Proviso, the, 320. 

Wilson, Henry, nomination of, 42S. 

Wilson Bill, the, 456. 

Wilson's Creek, battle of, 365. 

Winchester, battle of, 396. 

Windmills, 143. 

Winthrop, Gov., 85. 

Winthrop, John, Jr., builds Fort Saybrook, 
89. 

Wisconsin, admission of, 316. 

Witchcraft craze in Massachusetts, 87. 

W^olcott Commission, the, 461. 

Wolfe, Gen., at Quebec, 119, 120. 

Wood, Leonard, 468. 

Woolley, John G., 482. 

World, circumnavigation of, 31. 

World's Fair, 1853, the, 327. 

World's Fair and Louisiana Purchase Expo- 
sition, 486. 

World's Fair at Chicago, the, 456. 

World's Peace Conference, 483. 



INDEX. 



IX IX 



Writs of assistance, 154. 
Wyeth, Nathaniel J., 310. 
Wyoming, admission of, 453. 
Massacre, 188. 

Yale College, founded. 132. 

Yeardley, Gov., 60. 

Yellow fev^er epidemic, 1878-79, 437. 



Yorktown, surrender at, 205 ; evacuation of, 
in 1862, 376. 

centennial, 442. 

Young, Brigham, 301. 
Young, General, 474. 
Ysleta (Is-let'ta), settlement at, 35. 

Zollicoffer, Gen., 367. 



